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[[Image:Luther-Cranach.jpg|right|225px]]

[[Image:Luther-Cranach.jpg|right|225px]]

'''Martin Luther''' (November 10, 1483 - February 18, 1546) was one of the most important leaders in [[Christian]] and [[Germany|German]] history. An Augustinian monk, priest, and professor of theology, he launched the [[Protestantism|Protestant Reformation]] and founded the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]] as a branch of [[Christianity]] dominant in Northern Europe.

'''Martin Luther''' (November 10, 1483 - February 18, 1546) was one of the most important leaders in [[Christian]] and [[Germany|German]] history. An Augustinian monk, priest, and professor of theology, he unintentionally launched the [[Protestantism|Protestant Reformation]] and founded the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]].

{{Christianity}}

{{Christianity}}

Previous reform movements in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] were small-scale and did not disrupt the medieval Church; disruptions had simply been schisms rather than over serious doctrinal questions. Luther was the first to break Roman Catholic unity, when he was excommunicated for the [[95 Theses]] he had written in 1517 as a direct challenge to Church practice. Furthermore, in his position had the backing of several German princes who resented the Italian domination of the Church.

Luther was the first to break [[Roman Catholic]] unity on a large scale. He was excommunicated for the [[95 Theses]] he had written in 1517 as a direct challenge to Church practice. Furthermore, he had the backing of several German princes who resented the Italian domination of the Church.

A tireless writer of tracts and hymns, Luther used the newly-invented [[printing press]] to disseminate his works, which were highly influential in Northern Europe. He reshaped German religious culture through rejection of Catholic liturgy and clerical celibacy; he created a new Lutheran liturgy using his very popular hymns and his translation of the Bible into German helped to shape the German language.  

A tireless writer of tracts and hymns, Luther reshaped German religious culture by rejecting clerical celibacy and creating a new liturgy that emphasized congregational singing. His very popular hymns and his translation of the Bible into German helped to shape the German language.  

To [[Mainline]] Protestants, Luther has always been a great reformer: an agent of and witness to Jesus Christ, upon whom God mysteriously chose to bestow a gift of deep insight into the [[Bible]] and the true nature of the Catholic Church, not unlike the kind of conversion experience vouchsafed [[St. Paul]]<ref>[[James Atkinson]], ''Martin Luther: Prophet to the Church Catholic'', (1983) , ISBN 0-8028-1260-0, pp.43-58</ref>. "Luther, and with him all the Reformers of the sixteenth century, German, Swiss, and British alike, believed that God spoke to them in the Scriptures in exactly the same way He had spoken to his prophets and apostles."<ref>''Martin Luther:Prohpet to the Church Catholic'', [[James Atkinson]], Eerdmans, 1983, ISBN 0-8028-1260-0, p.143</ref>" From the [[Roman Catholic]] perspective, Luther remains a monk who overeacted to the problems of the day and caused a great deal of needless trouble, although more recently the Catholic Church and several mainline Lutheran groups have signed a joint declaration resolving several of the theological differences raised by Luther.<ref>[http://archive.elca.org/ecumenical/ecumenicaldialogue/romancatholic/jddj/index.html Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]</ref>

To [[Mainline]] Protestants, Luther has always been a great reformer who had a deep insight into the [[Bible]] and the true nature of the Catholic Church, not unlike the kind of conversion experience vouchsafed [[St. Paul]]<ref>[[James Atkinson]], ''Martin Luther: Prophet to the Church Catholic'', (1983) , ISBN 0-8028-1260-0, pp.43-58</ref>. "Luther, and with him all the Reformers of the sixteenth century, German, Swiss, and British alike, believed that God spoke to them in the Scriptures in exactly the same way He had spoken to his prophets and apostles."<ref>''Martin Luther: Prophet to the Church Catholic'', [[James Atkinson]], Eerdmans, 1983, ISBN 0-8028-1260-0, p.143</ref>" From the [[Roman Catholic]] perspective, Luther remains a monk who overeacted to the problems of the day and caused a great deal of needless trouble, although more recently the Catholic Church and several mainline Lutheran groups have signed a joint declaration resolving several of the theological differences raised by Luther.<ref>[http://archive.elca.org/ecumenical/ecumenicaldialogue/romancatholic/jddj/index.html Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]</ref>

Luther's image changed over the centuries. Calvinists challenged his theology while Catholics systematically reviled his personality well into the 20th century. Lutherans saw him as an authoritative interpreter of the Word whose texts must be studied word for word, then as a prophet of God whose overall message was more important than particular writings, and finally as a hero of the German people who transcended religion.<ref>Robert Kolb, ''Martin Luther as Prophet, Teacher, and Hero: Images of the Reformer, 1520-1620'' (1999)</ref>  

Luther's image changed over the centuries. Calvinists challenged his theology while Catholics systematically reviled his personality well into the 20th century. Lutherans saw him as an authoritative interpreter of the Word and as a hero of the German people, transcending religion.<ref>Robert Kolb, ''Martin Luther as Prophet, Teacher, and Hero: Images of the Reformer, 1520-1620'' (1999)</ref>  

==Biography==

==Biography==

Luther was born on Nov. 10, 1483, in the central German town of Eisleben in Thuringia. His father, Hans Luther, originally a peasant, learned mining skills, and became a businessman who owned several small foundries; his mother, Margarethe, came from an educated urban professional family. Luther was brought up strictly according to tradition; he entered the University of Erfurt in 1501, took a master of arts degree in 1505 and studied law in preparation for the legal career his father planned for him. Erfurt was the center of [[humanism]], and Luther was well educated by leading scholars there in [[Aristotle]] and the Latin classics.

Luther was born on Nov. 10, 1483 in the central German town of Eisleben in Thuringia. His father, Hans Luther, originally a peasant, learned mining skills, and became a businessman who owned several small foundries; his mother, Margarethe, came from an educated urban professional family. Luther was brought up strictly according to tradition; he entered the University of Erfurt in 1501, took a master of arts degree in 1505 and studied law in preparation for the legal career his father planned for him. Erfurt was the center of [[humanism]], and Luther was well educated by leading scholars there in [[Aristotle]] and the Latin classics.

Young Luther was tormented by the contemporary picture of man's destiny. Germany was at that time obsessed by a cult of death, which had arisen after the [[Black Death]] more than a century before; however, not even death was as appalling to Luther as the final judgment and the prospect of everlasting damnation. In July 1505, a thunderstorm overtook him. Struck to the ground by a bolt of lightning, he cried in terror to his father's patron saint, "St. Anne, help me! I will become a monk." Two weeks later he entered the strict Augustinian order.<ref>Albrecht Beutel, "Luther's Life," in McKim, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther'' (2003) p. 3-19; Mullett, ''Martin Luther'' (2004), ch. 1, quote p. 27 </ref>

Young Luther was tormented by the contemporary picture of man's destiny. Germany was at that time obsessed by a cult of death, which had arisen after the [[Black Death]] more than a century before; however, not even death was as appalling to Luther as the final judgment and the prospect of everlasting damnation. In July 1505, a thunderstorm overtook him. Struck to the ground by a bolt of lightning, he cried in terror to his father's patron saint, "St. Anne, help me! I will become a monk." Two weeks later he entered the strict Augustinian order.<ref>Albrecht Beutel, "Luther's Life," in McKim, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther'' (2003) p. 3-19; Mullett, ''Martin Luther'' (2004), ch. 1, quote p. 27 </ref>

=== Monastic years ===

=== Monastic years ===

Luther took his final vows and in May 1507 he was ordained a priest. He was assigned to the town of Wittenberg, Saxony, the next year as an instructor in logic and physics at the new University of Wittenberg, with its 180 students. Luther spent nearly his entire life in Wittenberg. He was favored and protected by the government, thanks to the influence of his friend, the court chaplain Georg Spalatin (1484-1545).  He learned Greek and Hebrew and carried out extensive study of the Bible, as well as standard theological treatises by Scholastic thinkers Peter Lombard (c.1100-60),  John Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Pierre d' Ailly (1350-1420) and William of Occam (1288-1347); however, his chief influence was St. [[Augustine]] (354-430), the reputed founder of his order. Another (lesser) influence was the Nominalist theologian Gabriel Biel (c.1420-95), who taught that sinners could attain genuine contrition for their sins. Biel clarified the issue and Luther in 1517 came down strongly in opposition to it.

Luther took his final vows and in May 1507 was ordained a priest. He was assigned to the town of Wittenberg, Saxony the next year as an instructor in logic and physics at the new University of Wittenberg. Luther spent nearly his entire life in Wittenberg. He was favored and protected by the government, thanks to the influence of his friend, the court chaplain Georg Spalatin (1484-1545).  He learned Greek and Hebrew and carried out an extensive study of the Bible, as well as standard theological treatises by Scholastic thinkers Peter Lombard (c.1100-60),  John Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Pierre d' Ailly (1350-1420) and William of Occam (1288-1347). His chief influence was St. [[Augustine]] (354-430), the reputed founder of his order.  

The university awarded him the degree of doctor of theology in 1512. Luther rapidly advanced in his teaching career and became a successful administrator, also preaching regularly in the parish church. In 1510-11 he went to Rome on official business for five months, the first and only time he left Germany. In retrospect, he spoke of seeing Rome's corruption, but most historians believe these remarks were heavily influenced by his subsequent excommunication and alignment with German nationalism. In 1511 he did not yet share the views of Renaissance Germany's anti-papal and anti-Italian movement, of which he later became leader.<ref>Mullett, ''Luther'' p 46</ref>

In 1510-11 he went to Rome on official business for five months, the first and only time he left Germany. He later spoke of seeing Rome's corruption. In 1511 he did not yet share the views of Renaissance Germany's anti-papal and anti-Italian movement, of which he later became leader.<ref>Mullett, ''Luther'' p 46</ref>

 

=== Wittenberg ===

=== Wittenberg ===

Luther's fears continued to plague him. Repeated bouts of depression may have arisen partly from physical causes having to do with Luther's savagely ascetic lifestyle, which was self-imposed against the advice of his confessor. Of this experience, Luther wrote, "I vexed myself with fasts and prayers beyond what was common...if I could have got to heaven by fasting, I should have merited that twenty years ago.... I afflicted myself almost to death."<ref>Mullett, ''Luther'' p 44</ref>

Luther's fears continued to plague him. Repeated bouts of depression may have arisen partly from physical causes having to do with Luther's savagely ascetic lifestyle, which was self-imposed against the advice of his confessor. Of this experience, Luther wrote, "I vexed myself with fasts and prayers beyond what was common...if I could have got to heaven by fasting, I should have merited that twenty years ago.... I afflicted myself almost to death."<ref>Mullett, ''Luther'' p 44</ref>

In reaction to this attempt to justify himself by self-torture, he decided that [[Total depravity|nothing in the power of man is good enough to constitute a claim upon God]]. He utilized all avenues within the Church's penitential system so that the sins which he could not expunge or eradicate might yet be forgiven, only to discover that he could not confess all of his sins. Some sins were forgotten and others not recognized, for man does not see that he is a sinner until confronted by the accusing finger of God. The mystic way of ceasing to struggle and of surrendering oneself to the wonder and the goodness of God offered no solution; for Luther, God was a consuming flame.

In reaction to this attempt to justify himself through sacrifice, he was led instead to a belief that nothing in the power of man is good enough to constitute a claim upon God. He had utilized all avenues within the Church's penitential system so that the sins which he could not expunge or eradicate might yet be forgiven, only to discover that he could not confess all of his sins. Some sins were forgotten and others not recognized, for man does not see that he is a sinner until confronted by the accusing finger of God.  

The solution to Luther's problems came through the study of the Bible, part of his official duties. Luther later told of how religious experiences led him to two important theological discoveries: in 1514, a realization of the evangelical purpose of the Gospel, and in 1518 (possibly earlier) a replacement of scholastic theology with what he called the "theology of the cross."  

Luther later told of how religious experiences led him to two important theological discoveries: in 1514, a realization of the evangelical purpose of the Gospel, and in 1518 (possibly earlier) a replacement of scholastic theology with what he called the "theology of the cross."  

In writing lectures on ''Psalms, Romans, and Galatians'' from 1513 to 1516, Luther came to the conclusion, fundamental to Protestant theology, that man depends for his salvation on the sheer grace of God, made available through the sacrificial death of Christ. Christ is not primarily the terrible judge who condemns sinners, but the redeemer upon the cross. Man has only to believe and to accept in trust what God has done to be forgiven, even though sin is never entirely taken away. This was to become the central doctrine of Luther's creed: the doctrine of [[Sola fide|justification by faith alone]].

In writing lectures on ''Psalms, Romans, and Galatians'' from 1513 to 1516, Luther came to the conclusion, fundamental to Protestant theology, that man depends for his salvation on the sheer grace of God, made available through the sacrificial death of Christ. Christ is not primarily the terrible judge who condemns sinners, but the redeemer upon the cross. Man has only to believe and to accept in trust what God has done in order to be forgiven, even though sin is never entirely taken away. This was to become the central doctrine of Luther's creed: the doctrine of [[Sola fide|justification by faith alone]].

The critical point at which Luther's position diverged from that of the Catholic Church was in his absolute denial of man's ability to do anything whatsoever toward his own salvation. The Church taught that, through grace, man is given by God the ability to fulfill His commandments. Since man is free to reject this grace, if he accepts it instead and performs good works, his deeds are meritorious. But Luther held that when good deeds are performed with an eye to reward, they are damnable sins.

The critical point at which Luther's position diverged from that of the Catholic Church was in his absolute denial of man's ability to do anything whatsoever toward his own salvation. The Catholic Church taught that, through grace, man is given by God the ability to fulfill His commandments and to earn God's favor by doing so. Since man is free to reject this grace, if he accepts it instead and performs good works, his deeds are meritorious. But Luther held that when good deeds are performed with an eye to reward, they are damnable sins.  

===About indulgences===

===About indulgences===

Luther's actual breach with the Church was occasioned by the Church's use of ''indulgences'', or remissions by the Church of punishment time in Purgatory (a penalty for certain sins). Indulgences did not help souls sent to hell.<ref>For the Catholic position see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07783a.htm W.H. Kent, "Indulgences" in ''Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)]</ref>Invented in the 11th century, indulgences at first only remitted penalties imposed by the pope on earth, but by the 1480s the pope claimed an extension to penalties imposed by God in Purgatory. Some popes undertook not only to remit penalties but also to forgive sins. In return for such benefits the recipients made cash contributions in accordance with their financial ability. The underlying theory of the entire transaction was that Christ and the saints had by their good works earned more credits than were needful for their own salvation and had stored up a treasury of merits from which the pope could make transfers to others.

Luther's actual breach with the Church was occasioned by the Church's use of ''indulgences'', or remissions by the Church of punishment time in Purgatory (a penalty for certain sins). [[Indulgences]] did not help souls sent to hell.<ref>For the Catholic position see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07783a.htm W.H. Kent, "Indulgences" in ''Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)]</ref>Invented in the 11th century, indulgences at first only remitted penalties imposed by the pope on earth, but by the 1480s the pope claimed an extension to penalties imposed by God in Purgatory. Some popes undertook not only to remit penalties but also to forgive sins. In return for such benefits the recipients made cash contributions in accordance with their financial ability. The underlying theory of the entire transaction was that Christ and the saints had by their good works earned more credits than were needful for their own salvation and had stored up a treasury of merits from which the pope could make transfers to others. The transfer was often accompanied by a certificate similar to a bank note.

The privilege of dispensing the particular indulgences which drew Luther's ire was granted by Pope Leo X to Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz. The public thought money was going to Rome to build St. Peter's Church; in reality, half the money went to Albrecht so that he could repay the loan that had enabled him to purchase from Rome a second archbishopric. The proclamation of the indulgence was entrusted to Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk with considerable experience in the field. The indulgence was declared, in an accompanying document, to confer the forgiveness of sin, and there was the further statement that those who secured indulgences for relatives in Purgatory need not themselves be contrite. Tetzel assured his hearers that:<ref>A. D. Dickens, ''Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe'' (1966) p 61-2. </ref>

The privilege of dispensing the particular indulgences which drew Luther's ire was granted by Pope Leo X to Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz. The public thought money was going to Rome to build St. Peter's Church; in reality, half the money went to Albrecht so that he could repay the loan that had enabled him to purchase from Rome a second archbishopric. The proclamation of the indulgence was entrusted to Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk with considerable experience in the field. The indulgence was declared, in an accompanying document, to confer the forgiveness of sin, and there was the further statement that those who secured indulgences for relatives in Purgatory need not themselves be contrite. Tetzel assured his hearers that:<ref>A. D. Dickens, ''Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe'' (1966) p 61-2. </ref>

===95 Theses (1517)===

===95 Theses (1517)===

On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed [[the 95 Theses]] or issues to the door of the ''Schlosskirche'' (Castle Church) in Wittenberg, starting the Protestant Reformation. The 95 Theses were complaints on the subject of indulgences intended to spark public debate,<ref>For the e-text see [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/ninetyfive.html English translation]; and [http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~lyman/english233/sg-95ths.htm Lyman Baker, "Study Guide for the ...Ninety-five Theses"] </ref> a common procedure among theologians at that time.

On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed [[the 95 Theses]] or issues to the door of the ''Schlosskirche'' (Castle Church) in Wittenberg. This act, unremarkable in itself, is considered to be the start of the

[[Protestant Reformation]]. The 95 Theses were complaints on the subject of indulgences intended to spark public debate,<ref>For the e-text see [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/ninetyfive.html English translation]; and [http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~lyman/english233/sg-95ths.htm Lyman Baker, "Study Guide for the ...Ninety-five Theses"] </ref> a common procedure among theologians at that time.

Here are two of Luther's most important Theses:

Here are two of Luther's most important Theses:

===Papal reaction to the 95 Theses===

===Papal reaction to the 95 Theses===

The 95 Theses hurled Luther into the middle of controversy, leading to his excommunication by the pope in 1520 and to the Diet of Worms in 1521 declaring him outlaw in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther's role changed from that of a would-be reformer of the Catholic Church to a declared foe of that institution, as it refused to heed his call to bring its beliefs and practice into line with the doctrines he had been uncovering in his study of the Bible. He was thus the only one of the prominent Protestant Reformers not to break voluntarily with the Church.

The 95 Theses hurled Luther into the middle of controversy, leading to his excommunication by the pope in 1520 and to the Diet of Worms in 1521 which declared him an outlaw in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther's role changed from that of a would-be reformer of the Catholic Church to a declared foe of that institution, as it refused to heed his call to bring its beliefs and practice into line with the doctrines he had been uncovering in his study of the Bible. He was thus the only one of the prominent Protestant Reformers not to break voluntarily with the Church.

Luther sharply attacked any linkage between the raising of money and the remission either of sins or penalties. He denied the jurisdiction of the pope over Purgatory, noting that if the pope could release souls, he should let them all out without collecting a penny. Many colleagues agreed with Luther thus far. But he went on to deny the fundamental theory of the treasury of the accumulated merits of the saints; he attacked not just the abuse of the indulgences but the core idea.

Luther sharply attacked any linkage between the raising of money and the remission either of sins or penalties. He denied the jurisdiction of the pope over Purgatory, noting that if the pope could release souls, he should let them all out without collecting a penny. Many colleagues agreed with Luther thus far. But he went on to deny the fundamental theory of the treasury of the accumulated merits of the saints; he attacked not just the abuse of the indulgences but the core idea.

Luther retorted that the pope was wrong – a nearly heretical statement. The pope summoned Luther to Rome, but Luther's prince, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, stepped in and insisted that his subject must have a fair hearing on German soil. The centuries-old German distrust of an Italian papacy was thus the first factor which gave Luther protection.  German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and in aid of cutting this off, they backed Luther.

Luther retorted that the pope was wrong – a nearly heretical statement. The pope summoned Luther to Rome, but Luther's prince, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, stepped in and insisted that his subject must have a fair hearing on German soil. The centuries-old German distrust of an Italian papacy was thus the first factor which gave Luther protection.  German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and in aid of cutting this off, they backed Luther.

A compromise was arranged: instead of going to Rome, Luther would appear at a hearing before Cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, at Augsburg in 1518.<ref>The Dominican order was a great rival of the Augustinians, and theologians took sides with Cajetan or Luther accordingly. MacCulloch (2005), p. 125-6</ref> The Cardinal confronted Luther with the papal pronouncement, or bull, of Clement VI in 1343, which contained the doctrine of the accumulated treasury of the merits of the saints. Luther rejected this bull, thereby impugning not only the authority of a particular pope but also of the canon law generally. He refused to recant his argument that the efficacy of a sacrament depended on the faith of the recipient. Luther thus called into question central traditions of the Church, saying the office of the pope and his authority was in opposition to God's word, and that sacraments were not automatically effective. Cajetan branded Luther a heretic.  The pope wanted to have Luther brought to Rome by force, but such an undertaking was now politically impossible.<ref>Mullett, (2004) p. 82-3;  Smith, ''Life and Letters'' (1911), 48-54; for the Catholic viewpoint see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03145c.htm John R. Volz, "Tommaso de Vio Gaetani Cajetan," ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' vol 3 (1908)]</ref>

A compromise was arranged: instead of going to Rome, Luther would appear at a hearing before Cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, at Augsburg in 1518.<ref>The Dominican order was a great rival of the Augustinians, and theologians took sides with Cajetan or Luther accordingly. MacCulloch (2005), p. 125-6</ref> The Cardinal confronted Luther with the papal pronouncement, or bull, of Clement VI in 1343, which contained the doctrine of the accumulated treasury of the merits of the saints. Luther rejected this bull, thereby impugning not only the authority of a particular pope but also of the canon law generally. He refused to recant his argument that the efficacy of a sacrament depended on the faith of the recipient. Cajetan branded Luther a heretic.  The pope wanted to have Luther brought to Rome by force, but such an undertaking was now politically impossible.<ref>Mullett, (2004) p. 82-3;  Smith, ''Life and Letters'' (1911), 48-54; for the Catholic viewpoint see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03145c.htm John R. Volz, "Tommaso de Vio Gaetani Cajetan," ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' vol 3 (1908)]</ref>

===''Exsurge Domine''===

===''Exsurge Domine''===

[[Pope Leo X]] spent his time on the beauty flourishing during the [[Renaissance]], and was a patron of the great artist [[Raphael]]. Pope Leo X probably never recognized the significance of Luther and his followers.  Some historians feel that if the pope had responded more seriously, then the subsequent schism in Germany would not have occurred; others argue that a Reformation was inevitable and that many leaders were emerging.

[[Pope Leo X]] spent his time on the beauty flourishing during the [[Renaissance]] and was a patron of the great artist [[Raphael]]. Some historians feel that if the pope had responded more seriously to the challenge of Luther, then the subsequent schism in Germany would not have occurred.  Others argue that a Reformation was inevitable and that many leaders were emerging.

In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull [[Exsurge Domine]], which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be [[excommunicated]].  Luther refused and was then excommunicated by the Catholic Church.  

In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull [[Exsurge Domine]], which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be [[excommunicated]].  Luther refused and was then excommunicated by the Catholic Church.  

===Luther counterattacks===

===Luther counterattacks===

Luther was free to publicize his position widely, so everyone now recognized Luther as a defiant German rebel against the Church. He wrote a powerful series of pamphlets that rallied political and intellectual support.  

Luther was free to publicize his position widely, so everyone now recognized Luther as a defiant German spokesman against the Church headquartered in Italy. He wrote a powerful series of pamphlets that rallied political and intellectual support.  

* ''Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation''  called upon the rulers, including the emperor, to reform the Church. Luther demanded that the papacy be restored to the poverty and simplicity of the days of St. Peter, and that the finances and vast real estate holdings of the Church should be handled by national churches, not the pope. He also demanded the abolition of clerical celibacy, which the Germans had opposed when it had been brought in by Gregory VII in the 11th century.

* ''Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation''  called upon the rulers, including the emperor, to reform the Church. Luther demanded that the papacy be restored to the poverty and simplicity of the days of St. Peter, and that the finances and vast real estate holdings of the Church should be handled by national churches, not the pope. He also demanded the abolition of clerical celibacy, which the Germans had opposed when it had been brought in by Gregory VII in the 11th century.

===Diet of Worms (1521)===

===Diet of Worms (1521)===

The papal bull reached Luther on October 10, 1520. giving him 60 days to recant. Luther's reply was the tract ''Against the Execrable Bull of Antichrist''. After 60 days, he burned the bull in public. Formal excommunication was delayed as international politics came into play; Luther's protector, Frederick, Elector of Saxony, was a critical person no power dared to alienate.

The papal bull reached Luther on October 10, 1520. giving him 60 days to recant. Luther's reply was the tract ''Against the Execrable Bull of Antichrist''. After 60 days, he burned the bull in public. Formal excommunication followed.  

 

It was then up to the German imperial authorities to take any legal action against Luther.  The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor, [[Charles V King of Spain|Charles V]], ordered him to stand trial before an assembly (a "Diet") of estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that met in the Imperial Free City of Worms (now part of Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany).

Though the Diet of Worms was an imperial meeting, it unexpectedly became a council of the Church; it would not take action without hearing Luther. Elector Frederick insisted that his subject be given a fair hearing, so the emperor, though an orthodox Catholic, issued the summons to Luther, who arrived after a triumphal tour across Germany.  Luther admitted he wrote the pamphlets and explained on April 18:

It was then up to the German imperial authorities to take any legal action against Luther.  The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor, [[Charles V King of Spain|Charles V]], ordered him to stand trial before an assembly (a "Diet") of estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that met in the Imperial Free City of Worms (now part of Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany). The emperor, an orthodox Catholic, issued the summons to Luther, who arrived after a triumphal tour across Germany.  Luther admitted he wrote the pamphlets and explained on April 18:

<blockquote style="font-style: italic">Unless I am convicted by Scripture or by right reason (for I trust neither in popes nor in councils, for they have often erred and contradicted themselves) -- unless I am thus convinced, I am bound by the texts of the Bible; my conscience is captive to the Word of God, I neither can nor will recant anything, since it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience is neither. Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen.<ref>Luther may have added the famous line "Here I stand" later; Smith, ''Life and Letters'' pp. 118, 453</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote style="font-style: italic">Unless I am convicted by Scripture or by right reason (for I trust neither in popes nor in councils, for they have often erred and contradicted themselves) -- unless I am thus convinced, I am bound by the texts of the Bible; my conscience is captive to the Word of God, I neither can nor will recant anything, since it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience is neither. Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen.<ref>Luther may have added the famous line "Here I stand" later; Smith, ''Life and Letters'' pp. 118, 453</ref></blockquote>

The verdict on May 25, 1521 (the "Edict of Worms") was "guilty."  Luther was declared an outlaw who could not be legally housed or fed, but could be legally killed. The lines of the Reformation were now hardened.

The verdict on May 25, 1521 (the "Edict of Worms") was "guilty."  Luther was declared an outlaw who could not be legally housed or fed, but could be legally killed. The lines of the Reformation were now hardened.

   

   

Luther had already left the trial before the verdict was rendered. He hid at Wartburg Castle at Eisenach under the protection of Frederick.  Luther took the pseudonym ''Junker Jörg'' (Sir George), grew a wide beard and dressed like a knight.   

Luther had already left the trial before the verdict was rendered, having been warned of the possibility of meeting a fate similar to that of [[John Huss]], the fifteenth century reformer. Luther hid at Wartburg Castle at Eisenach under the protection of Frederick.  Luther took the pseudonym ''Junker Jörg'' (Sir George), grew a wide beard and dressed like a knight while there.   

==The Reformation==

==The Reformation==

===Wartburg (1521-22)===

===The Wartburg (1521-22)===

While in hiding in Wartburg, the Reformation accelerated, stimulated by Luther's tracts and organized by his friends in Wittenberg, especially [[Philipp Melanchthon]], who always remained close, as well as the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. The liturgy was deliberately changed, with Luther's approval. For example, in a celebration of the Lord's Supper, they gave wine to the laity. Monks and nuns left the cloister and got married, and Luther concluded that they were right to do so.

While he was in hiding, the Reformation accelerated, stimulated by Luther's tracts and organized by his friends in Wittenberg, especially [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. The liturgy was altered, with Luther's approval. Wine was once again administered to the laity in Communion. Monks and nuns left the cloister and got married, and Luther concluded that they were right to do so. Luther's translation of the New Testament appeared in 1522; his translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew appeared in 1534.  

As iconoclasts and other radical elements began to cause disorder in Wittenberg, Luther returned to restore order. The emperor wanted to arrest him but had to worry first about several serious wars.

As iconoclasts and other radical elements began to cause disorder in Wittenberg, Luther returned to restore order. The emperor wanted to arrest him but had to worry first about several serious wars.

===Confronting radicals===

===Confronting radicals===

Luther was always troubled by violence and challenges to state authority. He was opposed when reformers broke up Catholic Masses and smashed images and statues of saints.

Peasants, long smarting under social inequalities, revolted in 1524-26 in Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia using his name and that of Thomas Münzer (1490-1525). At first Luther tried to mediate; in his ''Admonition to Peace,'' he blamed the unrest on the rulers who persecuted the gospel and mistreated their subjects. Many of the peasants' demands were just, he said, and for the sake of peace, the rulers should accommodate them.

On the other hand, Luther warned the peasants they were blaspheming Christ by quoting the gospel to justify their secular demands. He told them bluntly that the gospel taught obedience to secular authorities and the humble suffering of injustice. As rebellion spread Luther was appalled and denounced the rebellion.  In May 1525, he wrote against the "Robbing and Murdering Horde of Peasants," urging the princes to "smite, strangle, and stab [the peasants], secretly or openly, for nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel. It is just as when one must kill a mad dog; if you do not strike him, he will strike you and a whole land with you." He later criticized the merciless ruling classes, who killed some 100,000+ peasants (as well as Münzer) in order to crush the insurrection.

 

On the other hand, Luther warned the peasants they were blaspheming Christ by quoting the gospel to justify their secular demands. He told them bluntly that the gospel taught obedience to secular authorities and the humble suffering of injustice. As rebellion spread Luther was appalled and denounced the rebellion.  In May 1525, he wrote against the "Robbing and Murdering Horde of Peasants," urging the princes to "smite, strangle, and stab [the peasants], secretly or openly, for nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel. It is just as when one must kill a mad dog; if you do not strike him, he will strike you and a whole land with you."

 

Luther argued that man's chief duty on earth was work, in particular agricultural labor and the duty of the ruling classes was the maintenance of peace. He castigated all layers of society for not fulfilling their duties. The Peasant War broke the peace, an evil he thought greater than the evils the peasants were rebelling against. He later criticized the merciless ruling classes, who killed some 100,000+ peasants (as well as Münzer) to crush the insurrection.

 

As the institutional Lutheran church developed, secular leaders who professed Lutheranism gained increasing influence. In 1531, the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant princes, was formed to defend the Protestant states against possible Catholic attack. In 1536, the Lutherans and southern Germans reached a concord on the Lord's Supper. (The southern Germans acceded to the Lutheran insistence that Christ's body and blood were received in the Lord's Supper even by the "unworthy," and Lutherans let drop the question whether this also applied to the "godless.") The agreement also regularized the military alliance between the northern and southern parties.  

In the later part of his life, Luther was frequently ill, which caused his writings to become increasingly angry and short-tempered. His reading of the Bible revealed from the beginning there had been a perpetual struggle between the true and false church; what happened to the original church of the prophets and apostles could certainly happen to the Lutheran church as well. Luther concluded the papacy was the Antichrist and that his Protestant opponents were "false brethren," like those who had plagued the true prophets and apostles. The Turks, who threatened Europe from the east, were a clear sign of the end times: they were Gog and the little horn in the Book of Daniel.<ref>Edwards, ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, 1531-46'' (1983)</ref>  

In the later part of his life, Luther was frequently ill, which caused his writings to become increasingly angry and short-tempered. His reading of the Bible revealed from the beginning there had been a perpetual struggle between the true and false church; what happened to the original church of the prophets and apostles could certainly happen to the Lutheran church as well. Luther concluded the papacy was the Antichrist and that his Protestant opponents were "false brethren," like those who had plagued the true prophets and apostles. The Turks, who threatened Europe from the east, were a clear sign of the end times: they were Gog and the little horn in the Book of Daniel.<ref>Edwards, ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, 1531-46'' (1983)</ref>  

===Spreading the word===

===Spreading the word===

For his last 25 years Luther was primarily the professor, the preacher, and writer.<ref>Edwards, ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, 1531-46'' (1983)</ref> He taught at the University of Wittenberg, where some 16,000 students were enrolled, 1520-60, most of whom became enthusiastic proponents of Luther's "New Theology."  Since Luther remained under the imperial ban, it was Melanchthon, not Luther, who attended the many conferences where theologians disputed the new ideas.

For his last 25 years Luther was primarily the professor, the preacher, and writer.<ref>Edwards, ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, 1531-46'' (1983)</ref> He taught at the University of Wittenberg, where some 16,000 students were enrolled, 1520-60, most of whom became enthusiastic proponents of Luther's "New Theology."   

 

The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press. From 1517 onward religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. By 1530 over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting the struggle between "good" and "bad" churches. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda toward other agendas just as easily as in the Reformation; reformist writers used pre-Reformation styles, clichés, and stereotypes and changed items as needed for their own purposes.<ref>Mark U. Edwards, Jr., ''Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther'' (1994)</ref>

The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and of the new [[printing press]]. From 1517 onward religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. By 1530 over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting the struggle between "good" and "bad" churches. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda toward other agendas just as easily as in the Reformation; reformist writers used pre-Reformation styles, clichés, and stereotypes and changed items as needed for their own purposes.<ref>Mark U. Edwards, Jr., ''Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther'' (1994)</ref>

Illustrations in the newly translated Bible and in many tracts popularized Luther's ideas. [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] (1472-1553), the great painter patronized by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatized Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments (what Luther called "Law and Gospel"), while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.<ref>Christoph Weimer, "Luther and Cranach on Justification in Word and Image." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2004 18(4): 387-405. Issn: 0024-7499 </ref>

Illustrations in the newly translated Bible and in many tracts popularized Luther's ideas. [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] (1472-1553), the great painter patronized by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther and illustrated Luther's theology. He dramatized Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments (what Luther called "Law and Gospel"), while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.<ref>Christoph Weimer, "Luther and Cranach on Justification in Word and Image." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2004 18(4): 387-405. Issn: 0024-7499 </ref>

===Catechisms===

===Catechisms===

Especially effective were Luther's ''Small Catechism'', for use of parents teaching their children,  and ''Larger Catechism,'' for pastors.<ref>See texts at [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn English translation]</ref>  Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. The catechisms depict the idea of the Trinity not as a complex doctrine requiring a background in Greek philosophy to understand properly, but as one being filling three different roles: the Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles' Creed is presented in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and the Lord's Prayer, which together form the basis of Lutheran catechesis.<ref>Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2006 20(1): 1-25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne  Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms"  ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation.'' Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)  </ref>

Especially effective were Luther's ''Small Catechism'', for use of parents teaching their children,  and ''Larger Catechism,'' for pastors.<ref>See texts at [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn English translation]</ref>  Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. The catechisms depict the idea of the Trinity not as a complex doctrine requiring a background in Greek philosophy to understand properly, but as one being filling three different roles: the Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles' Creed is presented in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and the Lord's Prayer, which together form the basis of Lutheran catechesis.<ref>Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2006 20(1): 1-25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne  Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms"  ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation.'' Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)  </ref>

===Hymns===

===Hymns===

Luther was a prolific hymn writer; one of his most famous hymns is "A Mighty Fortress is Our God."<ref>For a short collection see [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn online hymns] </ref> Luther opened the way for a unity of high art and folk music, as well as of all classes -- clergy and laity, men, women and children. His device for this gathering was the singing of German-language hymns in connection with worship, the school, the home, and the public arena.<ref>Christopher Boyd Brown,  ''Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation.'' (2005) </ref>

Luther was a prolific hymn writer; one of his most famous hymns is "A Mighty Fortress is Our God."<ref>For a short collection see [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn online hymns] </ref> Luther opened the way for a unity of high art and folk music through the singing of German-language hymns in worship, the school, the home, and the public arena.<ref>Christopher Boyd Brown,  ''Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation.'' (2005) </ref>

Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "We All Believe in One True God" is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the ''Small Catechism.'' Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included ''Wir Glauben All'' among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely use the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.  

Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "We All Believe in One True God" is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the ''Small Catechism.'' Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included ''Wir Glauben All'' among the catechetical hymns.  

Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, "Vater Unser in Himmelreich" (Our Father who art in Heaven), corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the ''Small Catechism,'' with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas; the hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's objectives of clarifying and strengthening the text and providing an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(1): 79-88, 89-98. </ref>

Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, "Vater Unser in Himmelreich" (Our Father who art in Heaven), corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the ''Small Catechism,'' with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. <ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(1): 79-88, 89-98. </ref>

Luther wrote "Aus Tiefer Not Schrei ich zu Dir" (From depths of woe I cry to you) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of "Aus Tiefer Not" was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(2): 160-169, 170-180. </ref>

Luther wrote "Aus Tiefer Not Schrei ich zu Dir" (From depths of woe I cry to you) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. <ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(2): 160-169, 170-180. </ref>

Luther's 1540 hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan Kam" (To Jordan came the Christ our Lord) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the ''Small Catechism.'' Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J. S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.  

Luther's 1540 hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan Kam" (To Jordan came the Christ our Lord) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the ''Small Catechism.'' Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J. S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work.  

==New theology==

==New theology==

===Eucharist===

===The Eucharist===

Luther's hierarchy of eucharistic meaning reflects his broader theology in structure and content. The divine Word, rather than ubiquity and the presence of Christ in the Sacrament, is the center of Luther's eucharistic theology. The hierarchy runs along this course: from the Word at the center of the Sacrament, to the benefit of the Sacrament in the Word of forgiveness, to the comfort given and received when the Sacrament is rightly used, to the fruit of communion in the Word of love. The hierarchy is the Word on which power, benefit, comfort, and communion are dependent; the presence is less important than the Word.  Since the Word is incarnational in Jesus Christ, the issue was the very nature of the Word itself.<ref>Thomas J. Davis, "'The Truth of the Divine Words': Luther's Sermons on the Eucharist, 1521-28, and the Structure of Eucharistic Meaning." ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' 1999 30(2): 323-342. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2544707  in Jstor]; Thomas Osborne, "Faith, Philosophy, and the Nominalist Background to Luther's Defense of the Real Presence," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), pp. 63-82 [ http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654258  in JSTOR]</ref>

The divine Word, rather than ubiquity and the presence of Christ in the Sacrament, is the center of Luther's eucharistic theology. The hierarchy runs along this course: from the Word at the center of the Sacrament, to the benefit of the Sacrament in the Word of forgiveness, to the comfort given and received when the Sacrament is rightly used, to the fruit of communion in the Word of love. The hierarchy is the Word on which power, benefit, comfort, and communion are dependent; the presence is less important than the Word.  Since the Word is incarnational in Jesus Christ, the issue was the very nature of the Word itself.<ref>Thomas J. Davis, "'The Truth of the Divine Words': Luther's Sermons on the Eucharist, 1521-28, and the Structure of Eucharistic Meaning." ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' 1999 30(2): 323-342. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2544707  in Jstor]; Thomas Osborne, "Faith, Philosophy, and the Nominalist Background to Luther's Defense of the Real Presence," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), pp. 63-82 [ http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654258  in JSTOR]</ref>

==Translations==

==Translations==

In his [[Luther Bible]], Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for "alone" (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: "justified by faith".<ref>He wrote in German,  "So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, alleyn durch den Glauben."</ref> Luther believed that man is justified by faith alone, and that salvation comes only from faith.  The Catholic Church taught that man is justified by faith, good works and confession to the Church authorities.

In his [[Luther Bible]], Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for "alone" (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: "justified by faith".<ref>He wrote in German,  "So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, alleyn durch den Glauben."</ref> Luther believed that the meaning is that man is justified by faith and only faith.  The Catholic Church taught that man is justified by faith, good works and confession to the Church authorities.

Luther also attempted to remove [[Hebrews]], [[James]], [[Jude]], and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] from the canon, arguing that they contradicted the rest of Scripture.<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html "Luther's Antilegomena"]</ref>

Luther also considered removing [[Hebrews]], [[James]], [[Jude]], and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] from the canon, arguing that they contradicted the rest of Scripture.<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html "Luther's Antilegomena"]</ref>

The [[printing press]] enabled Luther's translation to be printed for the public in September 1522.  The Christian world would never be the same again.<ref>The [[Gutenberg Bible]], which put the [[Latin Vulgate]] in book format, had been printed long before--in 1455--but only in a very small edition.</ref>

The printing press enabled Luther's translation to be printed for the public in September 1522.  The Christian world would never be the same again.<ref>The [[Gutenberg Bible]], which put the [[Latin Vulgate]] in book format, had been printed long before--in 1455--but only in a very small edition.</ref>

===Marriage===

===Marriage===

In 1525 Luther married Katharina von Bora (1499-1552), a noblewoman who had been placed in a Cistercian cloister at an early age, where she received an unusually strong education. Luther had helped her escape her cloister two years before their marriage, along with other nuns; husbands had been found for the rest of the group, but Katharina had held out for Luther.

In 1525 Luther married Katharina von Bora (1499-1552), a noblewoman who had been placed in a Cistercian cloister at an early age, where she received an unusually strong education. Luther had helped her escape her cloister two years before their marriage, along with other nuns; husbands had been found for the rest of the group, but Katharina had held out for Luther.

Her intelligence and strong will challenged traditional gender roles and allowed Luther to exemplify his beliefs; their marriage reinforced his position against monastic celibacy. Katharina was not a conventional housewife; in addition to raising four children, she managed Luther's cloister and expanded his estate. However, despite being the sole heir in Luther's will, Katharina received nothing after his death.<ref>Martin Treu, "Katharina von Bora, the Woman at Luther's Side." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1999 13(2): 157-178. </ref>

Her intelligence and strong will challenged traditional gender roles and allowed Luther to exemplify his beliefs; their marriage reinforced his position against monastic celibacy. In addition to raising four children, she managed Luther's cloister and expanded his estate. However, despite being the sole heir in Luther's will, Katharina received nothing after his death.<ref>Martin Treu, "Katharina von Bora, the Woman at Luther's Side." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1999 13(2): 157-178. </ref>

In "The estate of marriage" (1522) Luther removed marriage as a Christian sacrament but elevated its position in German society by advocating it as preferable to celibacy. This change was consistent with his teachings that lay people were in no way inferior to the clergy. Luther spoke of marriage as a temporal institution instituted by God in which both sexes should be treated with respect and the duties of child-rearing should be joyfully accepted. He loosened the restrictions on marriage, including allowing marriage between Christians and non-Christians, and allowed divorce in situations involving adultery,  although he called on Christians to forgive.<ref>Scott Hendrix, "Luther on Marriage." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2000 14(3): 335-350. </ref>

In "The estate of marriage" (1522) Luther removed marriage as a Christian sacrament but elevated its position in German society by advocating it as preferable to celibacy. This change was consistent with his teachings that lay people were in no way inferior to the clergy. Luther spoke of marriage as a temporal institution instituted by God in which both sexes should be treated with respect and the duties of child-rearing should be joyfully accepted. He loosened the restrictions on marriage, including allowing marriage between Christians and non-Christians, and allowed divorce in situations involving adultery,  although he called on Christians to forgive.<ref>Scott Hendrix, "Luther on Marriage." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2000 14(3): 335-350. </ref>

==Wars==

==Wars==

Charles V tried to stop the spread of [[Lutheranism]].  In 1544, Charles V sent armies against the German princes, but the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 gave each German prince the right to choose the religion for his state, a principle called ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'' (whose region, his religion).  Most of the southern German princes chose Catholicism, the northern princes Lutheranism.  After [[World War II]], when Germany split into West and East Germany, the West German part contained the predominantly Roman Catholic regions and the East German part consisted of the mostly Lutheran regions; also, the ethnic cleansing of Germans from Eastern Europe removed entire provinces of Germany's Lutheran state churches.

Charles V tried to stop the spread of [[Lutheranism]]. In 1531, the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant princes, was formed to defend the Protestant states against possible Catholic attack.  In 1544, Charles sent armies against the German princes, but the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 ultimately gave each German prince the right to choose the religion for his state by a principle called ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'' (whose region, his religion).  Most of the southern German princes chose Catholicism, the northern princes Lutheranism.   

==Jews==

==Jews==

Luther grew very hostile toward Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, saying they were a rejected people suffering God's wrath for rejecting the true Messiah and should be expelled from Germany.<ref>Most Lutherans ignored these violent polemics against Jews and stressed instead his earlier favorable views. Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century."  ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1987 1(1): 72-97.</ref>

Luther thought that the reason the Jews had not converted to Christianity was that they could not abide the Church of Rome. He therefore grew very hostile toward Jews who refused to convert to reformed

Christianity, saying they were a rejected people suffering God's wrath for rejecting the true Messiah and should be expelled from Germany.<ref>Most Lutherans ignored these angry polemics against Jews and stressed instead his earlier favorable views. Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century."  ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1987 1(1): 72-97.</ref>

Luther's writings in defense of his religious views were often harsh and passionate.  After first reaching out to the Jews, when they did not embrace his Christianity, in 1543 he published a tract entitled ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', in which he called for the burning of [[synagogue]]s and Jewish schools, the destruction of their prayer books, the demolition of their homes, and the confiscation of their money and property.<ref>[http://www.humanitas-international.org/showcase/chronography/documents/luther-jews.htm Text of Luther's ''On the Jews and Their Lies]</ref><ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Luther_on_Jews.html The Jewish Virtual Library]</ref>

In 1543 he published a tract entitled ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', in which he called for the burning of [[synagogue]]s and Jewish schools, the destruction of their prayer books, the demolition of their homes, and the confiscation of their money and property.<ref>[http://www.humanitas-international.org/showcase/chronography/documents/luther-jews.htm Text of Luther's ''On the Jews and Their Lies]</ref><ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Luther_on_Jews.html The Jewish Virtual Library]</ref>

Historians debate the impact Luther's writings may have had on German thought leading into the [[Nazi]] [[Holocaust]] of World War II.  Luther harshly criticized many peoples in addition to Jews; a pamphlet of his in 1545, the year before he died, was entitled "Against the Roman Papacy, an Institution of the Devil."  It is also recorded that at a round table discussion he said he believed in burning witches.  Some of Luther’s writings seem quite vulgar by today's standards, but much of it was also in response to vulgar accusations against his religious views.

Historians debate the impact Luther's writings may have had on German thought leading into the [[Nazi]] [[Holocaust]] of World War II.  Luther harshly criticized many peoples in addition to Jews; a pamphlet of his in 1545, the year before he died, was entitled "Against the Roman Papacy, an Institution of the Devil."  It is also recorded that at a round table discussion he said he believed in burning witches.  Some of Luther’s writings seem quite vulgar by today's standards, but much of it was also in response to vulgar accusations against his religious views.

After his death a furious theological battle raged over control of Luther's legacy. On the one hand were the "Syncretists" or "Philippists" (named after [[Philipp Melanchthon]]) based at the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, who sought a compromise with the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] over disputed issues such as free will and the Eucharist.<ref>Randall C. Zachman, ''The Assurance of Faith: Conscience in the Theology of Martin Luther and John Calvin'' (1993)</ref>  The other camp were "Gnesio-Lutherans" ("true Lutherans"), centered at Magdenburg, who denounced the first camp for suggesting good works were necessary for salvation.  The upshot was the emergence of "confessionalism", an inward-directed search for the "true" Luther that ended up with [[Lutheran Orthodoxy|a highly orthodox theology]] that seemed frozen in place until the [[Pietists]] emerged in the 18th century.  While this battle continued, Calvinists made major gains and dominated Protestant thought outside Northern Europe.  <ref>Robert Kolb, ''Luther's Heirs Define His Legacy: Studies on Lutheran Confessionalization'' (1996)</ref>

After his death a furious theological battle raged over control of Luther's legacy. On the one hand were the "Syncretists" or "Philippists" (named after [[Philipp Melanchthon]]) based at the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, who sought a compromise with the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] over disputed issues such as free will and the Eucharist.<ref>Randall C. Zachman, ''The Assurance of Faith: Conscience in the Theology of Martin Luther and John Calvin'' (1993)</ref>  The other camp were "Gnesio-Lutherans" ("true Lutherans"), centered at Magdenburg, who denounced the first camp for suggesting good works were necessary for salvation.  The upshot was the emergence of "confessionalism", an inward-directed search for the "true" Luther that ended up with [[Lutheran Orthodoxy|a highly orthodox theology]] that seemed frozen in place until the [[Pietists]] emerged in the 18th century.  While this battle continued, Calvinists made major gains and dominated Protestant thought outside Northern Europe.  <ref>Robert Kolb, ''Luther's Heirs Define His Legacy: Studies on Lutheran Confessionalization'' (1996)</ref>

Lutheranism has over 70 million adherents today, and its influence in secularized Europe has faded. But many Christians, even some Catholics, have sung a famous hymn written by Luther:  "A Mighty Fortress is Our God."  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Protstants worldwide agree with Luther that justification is by faith alone and belong to Protestant congregations that first sprung into being because of Luther's stand.

Lutheranism has over 70 million adherents today. Its influence in secularized Europe has faded, but many Christians, even Catholics, have sung Luther's famous hymn, "A Mighty Fortress is Our God."  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Protestants worldwide agree with Luther that justification is by faith alone. They

belong to Protestant congregations that came into being because of Luther's stand.

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