Cellular automata
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Cellular automata involve manipulation of a set of black-and-white cells on a grid using a set of rules for change based on the states of neighboring cells. The rules are applied iteratively over discrete time steps. John von Neumann and John Conway helped create this system.
- Stephen Wolfram published A New Kind of Science (2002) which emphasized their importance and that cellular automata would fundamentally change how science is done; see Computational irreducibility.