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Babylonia was a relatively late achiever in the Mesopotamian world, occupying southern Mesopotamia where Sumer was.  Babylonia was built around  2300 B.C.  Babylon was its main city, located about 55 miles south of where Baghdad is today in Iraq.  Babylon is now in ruins, but thousands of years ago was a thriving city known for the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon," which were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.  Babylon was known as a city devoted to materialism and self-indulgence.  As an example of usage, the English author G.K. Chesterton once wrote, "the Babylonian halls of the big hotel," using the word "Babylonian" to denote luxurious extravagance.

Babylonia was a relatively late achiever in the Mesopotamian world, occupying southern Mesopotamia where Sumer was.  Babylonia was built around  2300 B.C.  Babylon was its main city, located about 55 miles south of where Baghdad is today in Iraq.  Babylon is now in ruins, but thousands of years ago was a thriving city known for the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon," which were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.  Babylon was known as a city devoted to materialism and self-indulgence.  As an example of usage, the English author G.K. Chesterton once wrote, "the Babylonian halls of the big hotel," using the word "Babylonian" to denote luxurious extravagance.

As a city Babylon was smaller and less important than Ur, which enjoyed several dynasties.  But the constant fighting led to the fall of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, and an Amorite king named Sumuabum established a kingdom in 1894 B.C. there.  His successors built it up, and then a brilliant ruler name Hammurabi took power as the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 to 1750 B.C.  (That is over forty years: there were no term limits for rulers then!).

As a city Babylon was smaller and less important than Ur, which enjoyed several dynasties.  But the constant fighting led to the fall of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, and an Amorite king named Sumuabum established a kingdom in 1894 B.C. there.  His successors built it up, and then a brilliant ruler name Hammurabi took power as the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 to 1750 B.C.  (He reigned more than forty years: there were no term limits for rulers then!).

The reign of Hammurabi signaled the end of the early Mesopotamian civilization.  He created a system of justice by promulgating an elaborate code of law (called the Code of Hammurabi, or "Hammurabi's Code").  The code imposed harsh punishment of "an eye for an eye," and lower classes of people received harsher punishment than higher classes of people.  If you broke the bone of a  

The reign of Hammurabi signaled the end of the early Mesopotamian civilization.  He created a system of justice by promulgating an elaborate code of law (called the Code of Hammurabi, or "Hammurabi's Code").  The code imposed harsh punishment of "an eye for an eye," and lower classes of people received harsher punishment than higher classes of people.  If you broke the bone of a  

==Egypt==

==Egypt==

Ancient Egypt was a tremendous civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with great regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an "hydraulic empire."

Ancient Egypt was a tremendous civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an "hydraulic empire."

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa.  Dividing Egypt in half is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources such as plentiful clay and stone and the ability to trade for timber with nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.   

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa.  Dividing Egypt in half is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources such as plentiful clay and stone and the ability to trade for timber with nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.   

Ancient Egypt was always ruled by a "pharaoh" or king, who was considered to be a god and absolute owner and dictator of the country.  He was worshiped by the people.

Ancient Egypt was always ruled by a "pharaoh" or king, who was considered to be a god and absolute owner and dictator of the country.  He was worshiped by the people.

The Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British all conquered and ruled Egypt at some point.  In that respect, the story of who ran Egypt is the history of the greatest world powers ever.  Egypt did not have native rule between 341 B.C., when the Persians conquered the last Pharaoh (Nectanebo II), until A.D. 1952, when the native Egyptian president Nasser overthrew a British constitutional monarchy.

The Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British all conquered and ruled Egypt at some point.  In that respect, the story of who ran Egypt is the history of the greatest world powers ever.  But Egypt did not have native rule between 341 B.C., when the Persians conquered the last Pharaoh (Nectanebo II), until A.D. 1952, when the native Egyptian president Nasser overthrew a British constitutional monarchy.

<big>'''The Three Kingdoms'''</big>  

<big>'''The Three Kingdoms'''</big>  

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  the Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  the Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  

The '''Old Kingdom''' is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) as built by Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (pronounced KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were marvelous engineering feats that cannot be duplicated even today.

The '''Old Kingdom''' is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) under the reign of Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (pronounced KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were tremendous engineering feats that cannot be duplicated even today.

The '''Middle Kingdom''' was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

The '''Middle Kingdom''' was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

Here is a brief review of the famous Egyptian rulers.  The first was Menes (or Mena).  In 3100 B.C. he was already king of southern Upper Egypt, and he united it with northern Lower Egypt (note that lower Egypt is closer to the sea-level of the Mediterranean, north of Upper Egypt, as shown on the map).  We know his name because Egyptian men, not women, wore make-up and his name was found on palettes used to apply make-up.

Here is a brief review of the famous Egyptian rulers.  The first was Menes (or Mena).  In 3100 B.C. he was already king of southern Upper Egypt, and he united it with northern Lower Egypt (note that lower Egypt is closer to the sea-level of the Mediterranean, north of Upper Egypt, as shown on the map).  We know his name because Egyptian men, not women, wore make-up and his name was found on palettes used to apply make-up.

Though Menes is called the first "pharaoh" (Egyptian ruler), actually that term was not used until the 18th Dynasty, 1539-1292 B.C.  (Egypt was organized by "dynasties", where one family (including descendants) controlled the country.)  The term "pharaoh" signifies the Egyptian custom claiming that its ruler was a god, similar to the sky god Horus and the sun gods Re, Amon and Aton.  The pharaoh was considered to be the preserver of a god-given order, called ma'at.  Even after death the pharaoh supposedly retained divine status and magical powers.  This was a theocracy (rule by a god).

Though Menes is called the first "pharaoh" (Egyptian ruler), actually that term was not used until the 18th Dynasty, 1539-1292 B.C.  (Egypt was organized by "dynasties", where one family, including descendants, controlled the country.)  The term "pharaoh" signifies the Egyptian custom claiming that its ruler was a god, similar to the sky god Horus and the sun gods Re, Amon and Aton.  The pharaoh was considered to be the preserver of a god-given order, called ma'at.  Even after death the pharaoh supposedly retained divine status and magical powers.  This was a theocracy (rule by a god).

The Egyptian people were divided into separate levels or classes.  The highest level consisted of the priests and nobles, below them were the peasants, and below the peasants were the slaves (which included the Hebrews until Moses led them out in the Exodus).  Women were respected in their role of child-rearing and managing household finances, and there were two Egyptian queens:  Queen Ahhotep and Queen Hatshepsut.  Queen Ahhotep ruled in the Middle Kingdom and helped liberate Egypt from the Hyksos.  Her mummy was discovered in A.D. 1859, and her tomb contained many military artifacts honoring her.  Queen Hatshepsut served in the place of her young son who was heir to the throne, and she ruled for 15 years until her death in 1458 B.C.  She is known for expanding trade.  Women were also included in the gods (goddesses) that Egyptians worshiped.  More generally, rights of dynasty were inherited through the mother's side, making Egypt a "matriarchal" society.

The Egyptian people were divided into separate levels or classes.  The highest level consisted of the priests and nobles, below them were the peasants, and below the peasants were the slaves (which included the Hebrews until Moses led them out in the Exodus).  Women were respected in their role of child-rearing and managing household finances, and there were two Egyptian queens:  Queen Ahhotep and Queen Hatshepsut.  Queen Ahhotep ruled in the Middle Kingdom and helped liberate Egypt from the Hyksos.  Her mummy was discovered in A.D. 1859, and her tomb contained many military artifacts honoring her.  Queen Hatshepsut served in the place of her young son who was heir to the throne, and she ruled for 15 years until her death in 1458 B.C.  She is known for expanding trade.  Women were also included in the gods (goddesses) that Egyptians worshiped.  More generally, rights of dynasty were inherited through the mother's side, making Egypt a "matriarchal" society.

Egyptians invented mummification, which began in the 4th Dynasty.  It took the Egyptians a long time to develop this art, but they ultimately succeeded to perfection.  Without going into all the gory details, it consists of removing the internal organs from a body after death, treating the body with resin, and then wrapping it tightly in linen bandages.  You should consider becoming a doctor if you have an interest in this!

Egyptians invented mummification, which began in the 4th Dynasty.  It took the Egyptians a long time to develop this art, but they ultimately succeeded to perfection.  Without going into all the gory details, it consists of removing the internal organs from a body after death, treating the body with resin, and then wrapping it tightly in linen bandages.  You should consider becoming a doctor if you have an interest in this!

''Religion'': The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, often inspired by animals or aspects of nature such as the sun.  Only nobles could aspire to an afterlife, and only the king himself could become unified with Osiris, a legendary king who represented the forces of agriculture.  A pharaoh was considered to be a sun god, and eventually monotheism (one all-powerful god) became popular in Egypt, with the sun god Aton commanding all Egyptians' attention.  That religious view subsequently lost out to the more powerful religions of Christianity and Islam.  Now Egypt is 90% Sunnite Muslim, and the remainder mostly Christian (Copts).   

''Religion'': The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, often inspired by animals or aspects of nature such as the sun.  Only nobles could aspire to an afterlife, and only the king himself could become unified with Osiris, a legendary king who represented the forces of agriculture.  A pharaoh was considered to be a sun god, and eventually monotheism (one all-powerful god) became popular in Egypt, with the sun god Aton commanding all Egyptians' attention.  That religious view subsequently lost out to the more powerful religions of Christianity and Islam.  Today Egypt is 90% Sunnite Muslim, and the remainder mostly Christian (Copts).   

The Christian Copts trace their ancestors directly to the ancient Egyptians.  Unlike the Muslims in Egypt, who consider themselves Arabs, the Christian Copts do not consider themselves to be Arabs and the Christian Copts still use ancient Egyptian surnames.  They cite the sojourn by Jesus' family in Egypt to escape Herod, and the proselytizing in Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist, who wrote the Gospel and was martyred at Alexandria, Egypt.  He is considered the first leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church, followed by an unbroken line of 117 successors to the present Pope Shenouda III.   

The Christian Copts trace their ancestors directly to the ancient Egyptians.  Unlike the Muslims in Egypt, who consider themselves Arabs, the Christian Copts do not consider themselves to be Arabs and the Christian Copts still use ancient Egyptian surnames.  They cite the sojourn by Jesus' family in Egypt to escape Herod, and the proselytizing in Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist, who wrote the Gospel and was martyred at Alexandria, Egypt.  He is considered the first leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church, followed by an unbroken line of 117 successors to the present Pope Shenouda III.   

''Language'': The Egyptians developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  It was written on papyrus as a kind of paper; papyrus is a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river.  No one could fully understand hieroglyphics until the discovery of the "Rosetta Stone" by Napoleon's troops in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today, and consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone is marvelous in inscribing the same message three times: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used 700 B.C. to A.D. 400), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled the Frenchman Jean Francois Champollion to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.   

''Language'': The Egyptians developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  It was written on papyrus as a kind of paper; papyrus is a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river.  No one could fully understand hieroglyphics until the discovery of the "Rosetta Stone" by Napoleon's troops in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today, and consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone contains the inscription of the same message in three different ancient languages: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used from 700 B.C. to A.D. 400), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled the Frenchman Jean Francois Champollion to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.   

Egypt's complex, picture-based language probably hindered its growth.  The picture-based language was not as easy to use as the alphabet-based Phoenician language later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.  How would one express Christian concepts like salvation, faith, hope and redemption in hieroglyphics?  That would be very difficult to do.

Egypt's complex, picture-based language probably hindered its growth.  The picture-based language was not as easy to use as the alphabet-based Phoenician language later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.  How would one express Christian concepts like salvation, faith, hope and redemption in hieroglyphics?  That would be very difficult to do.