Changes

American history covers only about 400 years; World history concerns over 5000 years, going back to the first evidence of recorded events.  Our class covers the material in a course on Western Civilization or European history, and we cover far more too.  We will learn about Islam and Hinduism and all the forces that continue to shape our world to this day.  One cannot fully understand the attack on the United States known as "9/11" (it occurred on Sept. 11, 2001, destroying the World Trade Center), the violence in the Middle East, or the hostility between India and Pakistan without learning World history.

American history covers only about 400 years; World history concerns over 5000 years, going back to the first evidence of recorded events.  Our class covers the material in a course on Western Civilization or European history, and we cover far more too.  We will learn about Islam and Hinduism and all the forces that continue to shape our world to this day.  One cannot fully understand the attack on the United States known as "9/11" (it occurred on Sept. 11, 2001, destroying the World Trade Center), the violence in the Middle East, or the hostility between India and Pakistan without learning World history.

We will consider how mankind progressed in understanding the unseen -- such as truth and gravity and God.  In mathematics, mankind progressed from the discovery of geometry ([[Greeks]]) to the concept of "zero" (Indians) to calculus (English).  In economics, mankind progressed from wage and price controls (Romans) to the "invisible hand" of the free market (Scottish), which then unleashed tremendous prosperity.  Government progressed from rulers who claimed to be gods (Egyptians), to monarchs (Middle Ages), to constitutional republics (United States).  World history spans from pre-Christian to Christian.  What are we progressing towards now?  We will learn to use history to predict the future.

We will consider how mankind progressed in understanding the unseen -- such as truth and gravity and God.  In mathematics, mankind progressed from the discovery of geometry ([[Greeks]]) to the concept of "zero" (Indians) to calculus (English).  In economics, mankind progressed from wage and price controls (Romans) to the "invisible hand" of the free market (Scottish), which then unleashed enormous prosperity.  Government progressed from rulers who claimed to be gods (Egyptians), to monarchs (Middle Ages), to constitutional republics (United States).  World history spans from pre-Christian to Christian.  What are we progressing towards now?  We will learn to use history to predict the future.

Do not be misled by thinking that ancient peoples were dumb or boring because they lacked the technology of modern society.  The Egyptians, for example, cleverly built the massive pyramids using techniques that no one to this day can figure out or duplicate.  In 2600 B.C., they constructed the pyramid of Khufu containing 6 million tons of stone extending to a height of 481 feet.  The workmanship was superior to anything we do today: the rock base was virtually flat, not varying in elevation by more than a half-inch; its orientation is precisely aligned with the points of a compass; its stones were perfect fits.  Inside was a chapel, a causeway, and a temple.  It baffles engineers and architects to this day.  We would not be able to duplicate it even now, with all our technology, and no one knows how the Egyptians were able to build these intricate structures 4600 years ago.  Many other cultures, from Mesopotamia to Greece to Rome to India to China, invented things and discovered knowledge that no single person today is smart enough to duplicate.  Can you build a well-functioning wheel, or make paper?

Do not be misled by thinking that ancient peoples were dumb or boring because they lacked the technology of modern society.  The Egyptians, for example, cleverly built the massive pyramids using techniques that no one to this day can figure out or duplicate.  In 2600 B.C., they constructed the pyramid of Khufu containing 6 million tons of stone extending to a height of 481 feet.  The workmanship was superior to anything we do today: the rock base was virtually flat, not varying in elevation by more than a half-inch; its orientation is precisely aligned with the points of a compass; its stones were perfect fits.  Inside was a chapel, a causeway, and a temple.  It baffles engineers and architects to this day.  We would not be able to duplicate it even now, with all our technology, and no one knows how the Egyptians were able to build these intricate structures 4600 years ago.  Many other cultures, from Mesopotamia to Greece to Rome to India to China, invented things and discovered knowledge that no single person today is smart enough to duplicate.  Can you build a well-functioning wheel, or make paper?

We owe a great deal to the achievements of the Sumerians.  They developed the first system of writing (the cuneiform), the first codes of law and the first "city-state" (essentially a nation consisting only of a large city).  Their inventions were marvelous: the seed plow, the sailboat, and the potter’s wheel.  (Distinguish "cuneiform" symbols from "ideograms", which show ideas with symbols such as arrows for war, from "phonograms", in which symbols represent sounds).

We owe a great deal to the achievements of the Sumerians.  They developed the first system of writing (the cuneiform), the first codes of law and the first "city-state" (essentially a nation consisting only of a large city).  Their inventions were marvelous: the seed plow, the sailboat, and the potter’s wheel.  (Distinguish "cuneiform" symbols from "ideograms", which show ideas with symbols such as arrows for war, from "phonograms", in which symbols represent sounds).

Most workers in Mesopotamia were farmers, but some devoted their time to trade.  They had a calendar based on the moon to aid the farmers, and they developed a mathematical system using base 12.  They were tremendous inventors, creating complex systems of irrigation and discovering the plow, the cart and the wheel, and used bronze (a mixture of copper and tin) to make good farming tools.  Both men and women owned private property, had slaves, and were ruled by a king.

Most workers in Mesopotamia were farmers, but some devoted their time to trade.  They had a calendar based on the moon to aid the farmers, and they developed a mathematical system using base 12.  They were extraordinary inventors, creating complex systems of irrigation and discovering the plow, the cart and the wheel, and used bronze (a mixture of copper and tin) to make good farming tools.  Both men and women owned private property, had slaves, and were ruled by a king.

[[Image:Mesopotamia2.PNG|right]]

[[Image:Mesopotamia2.PNG|right]]

They built cities known as Eridu, Lagash, Ur, Uruk, Isin, Kish, just to name a few.  They were smart, and developed Akkadian as their language.  One interesting aspect of Akkadian is that it lacks any tense forms such as past or future tense.  The verbs expressed the manner of an action rather than its time.

They built cities known as Eridu, Lagash, Ur, Uruk, Isin, Kish, just to name a few.  They were smart, and developed Akkadian as their language.  One interesting aspect of Akkadian is that it lacks any tense forms such as past or future tense.  The verbs expressed the manner of an action rather than its time.

==Egypt==

==Egypt==

Ancient Egypt was a tremendous civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an "hydraulic empire."

Ancient Egypt was a spectacular civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an "hydraulic empire."

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa.  Dividing Egypt in half is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources such as plentiful clay and stone and the ability to trade for timber with nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.   

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa.  Dividing Egypt in half is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources such as plentiful clay and stone and the ability to trade for timber with nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.