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When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become a defining characteristic of the Roman people.   

When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become a defining characteristic of the Roman people.   

In 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome, and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (chariots), architectural forms (the arch), and beliefs (their main gods and goddesses were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, later worshiped by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

In 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome, and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (e.g., chariots), architectural forms (e.g., the arch), and beliefs (e.g., the primary Roman gods and goddesses were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, later worshiped by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  (You can remember that plebeians were poorer by reference to the term "plebe", which is the word used to describe a lowly freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  Today a "plebe" is the word used to describe a lowly freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Before long the plebes began to demand more rights for themselves.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  This language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, and it is up to him alone to make sure that he gets as much in value as he pays"; more literally, "caveat emptor" means "let the buyer beware").

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  This language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, and it is up to him alone to make sure that he gets as much in value as he pays"; more literally, "caveat emptor" means "let the buyer beware").

'''Roman Law''' developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the '''Twelve Tables''' around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

'''Roman Law''' developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the '''Twelve Tables''' around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel.  But this is merely a coincidence.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered based only on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in the A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered based only on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice: Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other.  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in the A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major reason for the enormous success of the Roman empire.

   

   

As important as Roman law was, the '''Roman military''' was even more influential.  Every physically capable male Roman was required to serve in the army.  Despite this forced service that might seem likely to result in a poor army, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman "legions" of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

As important as Roman law was, the '''Roman military''' was even more influential.  Every physically capable male Roman was required to serve in the army.  Roman soldiers were unstoppable.  Roman "legions" consisted of 3000 to 6000 soldiers, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

===The Punic Wars===

===The Punic Wars===