Changes

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  Today a "plebe" is the word used to describe a lowly freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  Today a "plebe" is the word used to describe a lowly freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace, and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Before long the plebes began to demand more rights for themselves.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Before long the plebes began to demand more rights for themselves.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

===The Punic Wars===

===The Punic Wars===

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over the trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars, between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over the trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

In the '''First Punic War (264-241 B.C.)''', Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were at first no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  But the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the '''First Punic War (264-241 B.C.)''', Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were at first no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  But the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, and thereby gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat.

In the '''Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.)''', Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  '''Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world'''.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Romans attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the '''Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.)''', Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  '''Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world'''.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Romans attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the '''Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.)''', killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  Then the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region in revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

In the '''Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.)''', killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  Then the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region in revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world at that time.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

===Leading up to an Empire===

===Leading up to an Empire===

In the eastern Mediterranean, Rome fought wars in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and Macedonia between 215 and 148 B.C. to gain control over those territories.  By 148 B.C., Rome controlled everything around the Mediterranean from Spain to Anatolia.

In the eastern Mediterranean, Rome fought wars in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and Macedonia between 215 and 148 B.C. to gain control over those territories.  By 148 B.C., Rome controlled everything around the Mediterranean from Spain to Anatolia.

Afterward a period of struggle ensued between the Roman military, fresh from its conquests, and the Senate that ruled under a republican form of government.  Some corruption followed, and historians blame wealthy senators for blocking some economic proposals.   

Afterward a period of struggle ensued between the Roman military, fresh from its conquests, and the Roman Senate, which ruled using a republican form of government.  Some corruption followed, and historians blame wealthy senators for blocking some economic proposals.   

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, served as tribunes in 133 and 123 B.C., respectively.  They passed laws to help the poor by redistributing land to the poor from the wealthy estates, known as "latifundia".  Gaius tried to end the practice of wheat speculation, by which wealthy citizens bought all the grain available and then, during times of shortage, resold it to the poor at greatly inflated prices.  However, the angry Senate instigated a riot that clubbed Tiberius to death in 133 B.C., and his brother Gaius committed suicide before he could be assassinated for trying to resell grain to the poor at low prices in 121 B.C.   

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, served as tribunes in 133 and 123 B.C., respectively.  They passed laws to help the poor by redistributing land to the poor from the wealthy estates, known as "latifundia".  Gaius tried to end the practice of wheat speculation, by which wealthy citizens bought all the grain available and then, during times of shortage, resold it to the poor at greatly inflated prices.  However, the angry Senate instigated a riot that clubbed Tiberius to death in 133 B.C., and his brother Gaius committed suicide before he could be assassinated for trying to resell grain to the poor at low prices in 121 B.C.   

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome's first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  Soon a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla).  Finally, Sulla took power, executed Marius's followers, and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome's first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  But soon a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla).  Finally, Sulla took power, executed Marius's followers, and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

===Julius Caesar===

===Julius Caesar===

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  '''In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate'''.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public by, for example, distributing grain to the poor.

Order was not established again until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  '''In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with two others -- the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great -- to rule Rome as the first triumvirate'''.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public by, for example, distributing grain to the poor.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning, to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning, to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practiced outside the requirements of Roman religious law, which continued through the time of Christ.  Julius Caesar was also good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practiced outside the requirements of Roman religious law, which continued through the time of Christ.  In addition, Julius Caesar was also good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

The Roman Senate did not like losing power to the dictator Julius Caesar.  In a conspiracy famously recounted in Shakespeare's play entitled ''Julius Caesar'', Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the "Ides of March" (March 15, 44 B.C.).  After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strove for power.  Julius Caesar had wanted his 18-year-old grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, to be his heir and become emperor.  Others wanted Mark Antony.  Cassius and Brutus also had armies of their own.  First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Roman Senate.   

The Roman Senate did not like losing power to the dictator Julius Caesar.  In a conspiracy famously recounted in Shakespeare's play entitled ''Julius Caesar'', Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the "Ides of March" (March 15, 44 B.C.).  After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strove for power.  Julius Caesar had wanted his 18-year-old grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, to be his heir and become emperor.  Others wanted Mark Antony.  Cassius and Brutus also had armies of their own.  A triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Roman Senate.   

Then the triumvirate fought internally among each other.  Lepidus retired.  Then Antony fell in love with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and went to be with her there, ruling the eastern part of the empire.  To turn public opinion against the popular Antony, Octavian read aloud a paper to the Senate that was supposedly Antony's will.  In it, Antony expressed his intent for Cleopatra and her children to rule the eastern part of the Empire after his death.  At the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Antony and Octavian clashed and Octavian won.  Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, but Octavian's army hunted them down.  Rather than be captured or killed, they took their own lives.  Their affair was chronicled over a thousand years later by Shakespeare in his tragedy, ''Antony and Cleopatra''.  After their deaths, Octavian was the sole ruler.

But then the triumvirate fought internally among each other.  Lepidus retired.  Antony fell in love with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and went to be with her there, ruling the eastern part of the empire.  To turn public opinion against the popular Antony, Octavian read aloud a paper to the Senate that was supposedly Antony's will.  In it, Antony expressed his intent for Cleopatra and her children to rule the eastern part of the Empire after his death.  At the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Antony and Octavian clashed and Octavian won.  Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, but Octavian's army hunted them down.  Rather than be captured or killed, they took their own lives.  Their affair was chronicled over a thousand years later by Shakespeare in his tragedy, ''Antony and Cleopatra''.  After their deaths, Octavian became the sole ruler of the Roman civilization.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterward.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero's work named ''The Philippics'' criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., Antony responded by putting Cicero to death.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterward.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero's work named ''The Philippics'' criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., Antony responded by putting Cicero to death.

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  '''This was the official birth of the Roman empire''', which covered vast, previously conquered territory (see right).  Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  '''This was the official birth of the Roman empire''', which covered vast, previously conquered territory (see right).  Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

'''Augustus established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, because the Senate's role became only advisory'''.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, a plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

'''Augustus established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, because the Senate's role became only advisory'''.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, a plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome had declined to less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire helped Christianity expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

'''The Roman empire flourished during "Pax Romana," which is Latin for "the Roman peace."  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died)'''.  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the "Five Good Emperors," and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called "Meditations", which emphasized one's personal duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

'''The Roman empire flourished during "Pax Romana," which is Latin for "the Roman peace."  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died)'''.  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the "Five Good Emperors," and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called "Meditations", which emphasized one's personal duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today's standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote ''The Aeneid'', which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of ''The Iliad'' and ''The Odyssey''.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (''Annals'' concerned public virtue and ''Germania'' concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (''Metamorphoses'').  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today's standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote ''The Aeneid'', which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of ''The Iliad'' and ''The Odyssey''.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (''Annals'' concerned public virtue and ''Germania'' concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (''Metamorphoses'').  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads, schools and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no guarantee against injustices.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (including Jesus) was a citizen.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no guarantee against injustices.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (including Jesus) was a citizen.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

Historians, however, criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment were held frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators and even chariot racing in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses and in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

Historians, however, criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment were held frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators, and even chariot racing, in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses and in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

===Roman Emperors===

===Roman Emperors===

Caligula's successor was his uncle Claudius, chosen by the guards who had killed Caligula.  Some believe the only way Claudius lived through Caligula's rule was by feigning insanity.  Much to everyone's surprise, Claudius proved to be a wise and able ruler and, under his rule, Britain became part of the Roman Empire.  Shortly after becoming emperor, however, Claudius died from poisoned mushrooms given to him by his wife so that her son Nero could be king.

Caligula's successor was his uncle Claudius, chosen by the guards who had killed Caligula.  Some believe the only way Claudius lived through Caligula's rule was by feigning insanity.  Much to everyone's surprise, Claudius proved to be a wise and able ruler and, under his rule, Britain became part of the Roman Empire.  Shortly after becoming emperor, however, Claudius died from poisoned mushrooms given to him by his wife so that her son Nero could be king.

Nero was one of the most despised rulers of all time, and was an even more merciless persecutor of the growing numbers of Christians than Caligula.  Nero became emperor at age sixteen, and despite being taught by the great philosopher Seneca, he quickly became a ruthless and irresponsible leader, ordering the murders of his wife and mother and instructing his teacher Seneca and the poet Lucan to commit suicide.  When Rome experienced a ravaging fire in A.D. 64, Nero supposedly sat carelessly playing his fiddle and sang about the fall of Troy.  Nero was initially blamed for the fire; however, another rumor to scapegoat Christians quickly began circulating: that Christians had somehow started the fire.  Nero responded by embarking on one of the most terrible executions of Christians the world has ever seen.  He had men, women and children put into the arena and eaten alive by wild animals.  Christians were tarred, tied to tall bundles of sticks and burned alive — human torches to provide light.  Peter and Paul were probably killed during Nero's reign.  Nero finally killed himself in A.D. 69, much to the relief of Christians and Romans alike.

Nero was one of the most despised rulers of all time, and was an even more merciless persecutor of the growing numbers of Christians than Caligula had been.  Nero became emperor at age sixteen, and despite being taught by the great philosopher Seneca, he quickly became a ruthless and irresponsible leader, ordering the murders of his wife and mother and instructing his teacher Seneca and the poet Lucan to commit suicide.  When Rome experienced a ravaging fire in A.D. 64, Nero supposedly sat carelessly playing his fiddle and singing about the fall of Troy.  Nero was initially blamed for the fire; however, another rumor to scapegoat Christians quickly began circulating: that Christians had somehow started the fire.  Nero responded by embarking on one of the most terrible executions of Christians the world has ever seen.  He had men, women and children put into the arena and eaten alive by wild animals.  Christians were tarred, tied to tall bundles of sticks and burned alive — human torches to provide light.  Peter and Paul were probably killed during Nero's reign.  Nero finally killed himself in A.D. 69, much to the relief of Christians and Romans alike.

    

    

After Nero's death, the first plebian (common man) emperor in Rome's history rose to power: the wise and practical Vespasian, the first in the line of the "Flavian" emperors.  His son Titus ruled after him, and it was during Titus's reign that Rome experienced three disasters: destructive fires, a terrible plague, and the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, which completely destroyed the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii.  Vespasian's other son, Domitian, ruled next and was the last of the Flavian emperors.  Next, the "Five Good Emperors" ruled: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonious Pius, and lastly, Marcus Aurelius.   

After Nero's death, the first plebian (common man) emperor in Rome's history rose to power: the wise and practical Vespasian, the first in the line of the "Flavian" emperors.  His son Titus ruled after him, and it was during Titus's reign that Rome experienced three disasters: destructive fires, a terrible plague, and the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, which completely destroyed the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii.  Vespasian's other son, Domitian, ruled next and was the last of the Flavian emperors.  Next, the "Five Good Emperors" ruled: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonious Pius, and lastly, Marcus Aurelius.   

Known as the "philosopher king," Marcus Aurelius wrote ''Meditations'', a Stoical work expressing compassion for the weak and less fortunate and resignation to one's fate.  During his reign, he led his powerful army against the Germanic tribes in the north, which had become a threat to the Roman empire.  Before the job was finished, however, he fell ill and died in A.D. 180, leaving the job to his son Commodus.  Lazy and much less capable than his father, Commodus preferred to stay in Rome, and made peace with the Germanic tribes, a decision that would eventually contribute to the destruction of the Roman empire.  

Known as the "philosopher king," Marcus Aurelius wrote ''Meditations'', a Stoical work expressing compassion for the weak and less fortunate and resignation to one's fate.  During his reign, he led his powerful army against the Germanic tribes in the north, which had become a threat to the Roman empire.  Before this job was finished, however, he fell ill and died in A.D. 180, leaving the job to his son Commodus.  Lazy and much less capable than his father, Commodus preferred to stay in Rome, and made peace with the Germanic tribes, a decision that would eventually contribute to the destruction of the Roman empire.  

Diocletian, who ruled from A.D. 284 to 305, attempted to save the Roman empire by dividing it into eastern and western regions, with Byzantium as the capital of the East and Rome as the capital of the West.  He established the "tetrarchy", or division of power among four rulers in 293 B.C.  The tetrarchy included two primary rulers, each with the title "Augustus", who ruled over the eastern and western empires, and two "Caesars" who served under the Augustuses.  He imposed economic regulations, some of which seem silly today.  For example, Diocletian required farmers to stay with their land and workers to stay on the job for the rest of their lives.  He did this to prevent people from leaving their work to avoid taxation.  For an empire that used slavery, this probably seemed like normal regulations.  Diocletian also imposed wage and price controls to halt inflation.  That economic regulation, which almost always fails, is still attempted by modern governments, including even the United States during World War II and by President Nixon in the early 1970s.

Diocletian, who ruled from A.D. 284 to 305, attempted to save the Roman empire by dividing it into eastern and western regions, with Byzantium as the capital of the East and Rome as the capital of the West.  He established the "tetrarchy", or division of power among four rulers in 293 B.C.  The tetrarchy included two primary rulers, each with the title "Augustus", who ruled over the eastern and western empires, and two "Caesars" who served under the Augustuses.  Diocletian imposed economic regulations, some of which seem silly today.  For example, Diocletian required farmers to stay with their land and workers to stay on the job for the rest of their lives.  He did this to prevent people from leaving their work to avoid taxation.  For an empire that used slavery, this probably seemed like normal regulations.  Diocletian also imposed wage and price controls to halt inflation.  That economic regulation, which almost always fails, is still attempted by modern governments, including even the United States during World War II and by President Nixon in the early 1970s.

Diocletian also attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.

Diocletian attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.

===Roman Contributions===

===Roman Contributions===

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and Latin is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and eventualy the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and Latin is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits and contributed little intellectually.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity grew in the Roman empire.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits, and Romans contributed less intellectually than the Greeks did.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity ultimately grew in the Roman empire.

==The Roman Empire and Christianity==

==The Roman Empire and Christianity==