Changes

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace, and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace, and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Before long the plebes began to demand more rights for themselves.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Before long the plebes began to demand more rights for themselves.  They refused to serve in the army, and the Senate appeased plebes by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  This language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, and it is up to him alone to make sure that he gets as much in value as he pays"; more literally, "caveat emptor" means "let the buyer beware").

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  This language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, and it is up to him alone to make sure that he gets as much in value as he pays"; more literally, "caveat emptor" means "let the buyer beware").

===Roman Contributions===

===Roman Contributions===

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and eventualy the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and Latin is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and eventually the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and Latin is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits, and Romans contributed less intellectually than the Greeks did.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity ultimately grew in the Roman empire.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits, and Romans contributed less intellectually than the Greeks did.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity ultimately grew in the Roman empire.

As Christianity grew, it began to organize itself along the lines of local parishes managed by priests, who in turn were selected by bishops.  A group of local churches forms a diocese.  Christianity is primarily an evangelical faith, and spreading its truths is considered a fundamental aspect of its doctrine.  By seeking conversion of others to the Good News, Christianity differs from other religions that lack an evangelical component, such as Judaism.  Popes were established in both Rome (a line of succession from Peter) and Alexandria, Egypt (a line of succession from Mark), and church law began to develop, known as "canon law."

As Christianity grew, it began to organize itself along the lines of local parishes managed by priests, who in turn were selected by bishops.  A group of local churches forms a diocese.  Christianity is primarily an evangelical faith, and spreading its truths is considered a fundamental aspect of its doctrine.  By seeking conversion of others to the Good News, Christianity differs from other religions that lack an evangelical component, such as Judaism.  Popes were established in both Rome (a line of succession from Peter) and Alexandria, Egypt (a line of succession from Mark), and church law began to develop, known as "canon law."

While Christianity was and is primarily peaceful in its evangelism, Roman emperors were brutal in attempting to suppress the religion.  Roman emperors Nero and Diocletian would actively persecute Christians, thereby creating many martyrs, but the religion continued to grow.  Christians would hold worship services in secret places, making use of pre-existing catacombs or tunnels underlying Rome.  There were numerous early Christian martyrs, such as Lawrence, who openly expressed their faith in Rome.  In A.D. 258, the Roman emperor abruptly issued an edict that all bishops, priests and deacons be immediately killed ("episcopi et presbyteriet diacones incontinenti animadvertantur").  The bishop of Rome (the pope) was found in a catacomb and immediately executed.  Lawrence, accordingly to verbal tradition, was roasted to death by a red-hot grid.  A very inspirational martyr, Lawrence reportedly declared courageously during his execution, "Turn me over. I am done on this side!"

While Christianity was and is primarily peaceful in its evangelism, Roman emperors were brutal in attempting to suppress the religion.  Roman emperors Nero and Diocletian would actively persecute Christians, thereby creating many martyrs, but the religion continued to grow.  Christians would hold worship services in secret places, making use of pre-existing catacombs or tunnels underlying Rome.  There were numerous early Christian martyrs in Rome, such as Lawrence, who openly expressed their faith.  In A.D. 258, the Roman emperor abruptly issued an edict that all bishops, priests and deacons be immediately killed ("episcopi et presbyteriet diacones incontinenti animadvertantur").  The bishop of Rome (the pope) was found in a catacomb and immediately executed.  Lawrence, accordingly to verbal tradition, was roasted to death by a red-hot grid.  A very inspirational martyr, Lawrence reportedly declared courageously during his execution, "Turn me over. I am done on this side!"

There were many other Christian martyrs, such as a Christian named "Valentine".  In A.D. 269, the Roman Emperor Claudius II ("Claudius the Cruel") banned marriages because he was having difficulty raising an army.  Valentine defied the order and performed Christian marriages in secret.  Inevitably Valentine was discovered, and he was sentenced to be beaten to death with clubs and beheaded.  The jailor's daughter visited him during his imprisonment and just before his death on February 14th, Valentine wrote her a sweet letter that he signed, "From your Valentine."

There were many other Christian martyrs, such as a Christian named "Valentine".  In A.D. 269, the Roman Emperor Claudius II ("Claudius the Cruel") banned marriages because he was having difficulty raising an army.  Valentine defied the order and performed Christian marriages in secret.  Inevitably Valentine was discovered, and he was sentenced to be beaten to death with clubs and beheaded.  The jailor's daughter visited him during his imprisonment and just before his death on February 14th, Valentine wrote her a sweet letter that he signed, "From your Valentine."

The inspiration of the Christian martyrs ultimately prevailed over the mighty Roman empire.  '''Official persecution of Christians in the Roman empire ended with the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, issued by the emperor Constantine'''.  This edict established Christianity as an acceptable religion to be practiced in Rome.  In A.D. 391, emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman empire and the worship of Roman gods was outlawed.  The only legal religions in the Roman empire were then Christianity and Judaism.  '''All the Roman emperors after Constantine were Christian, with one exception (Julian "the Apostate")'''.

The inspiration by the Christian martyrs ultimately prevailed over the mighty Roman empire.  '''Official persecution of Christians in the Roman empire ended with the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, issued by the emperor Constantine'''.  This edict established Christianity as an acceptable religion to be practiced in Rome.  In A.D. 391, emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman empire and the worship of Roman gods was outlawed.  The only legal religions in the Roman empire were then Christianity and Judaism.  '''All the Roman emperors after Constantine were Christian, with one exception (Julian "the Apostate")'''.

Constantine built a new Christian capital in the East for the Roman empire that would be safe from the German invaders, and he called it Constantinople.  The city was located to benefit from the expanding trade with the East.  He built the beautiful Church of Holy Wisdom there, now known as the "Cathedral of the Hagia Sophia."  This city survived and thrived for another 1000 years, as '''the eastern portion of the Roman Empire did not decline and fall as the western portion did'''.  The architecture of this city, now known as Istanbul, Turkey, is a mixture of Christianity and Hellenistic classicism.  It is located on the Bosporus Strait at the point where Europe meets Asia, and was the wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.  Half the city is in Europe and the other half is in Asia.  It was sometimes called the "Queen of Cities."

Constantine built a new Christian capital in the East for the Roman empire that would be safe from the German invaders, and he called it Constantinople.  The city was located to benefit from the expanding trade with the East.  He built the beautiful Church of Holy Wisdom there, now known as the "Cathedral of the Hagia Sophia."  This city survived and thrived for another 1000 years, as '''the eastern portion of the Roman Empire did not decline and fall as the western portion did'''.  The architecture of this city, now known as Istanbul, Turkey, is a mixture of Christianity and Hellenistic classicism.  It is located on the Bosporus Strait at the point where Europe meets Asia, and was the wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.  Half the city is in Europe and the other half is in Asia.  It was sometimes called the "Queen of Cities."

The Christian leaders issued the Nicene Creed, which confirms the divine Trinity of God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.  Virtually all Christians of almost any denomination today, Protestant and Catholic, adhere to the Nicene Creed, and many Christians recite it daily or weekly.  Arianism was simpler than Christianity and gained popularity for a while among Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire, but lost influence after the 8th century A.D.

The Christian leaders issued the Nicene Creed, which confirms the divine Trinity of God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.  Virtually all Christians of almost any denomination today, Protestant and Catholic, adhere to the Nicene Creed, and many Christians recite it daily or weekly.  Arianism was simpler than Christianity and gained popularity for a while among Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire, but lost influence after the 8th century A.D.

Another Christian heresy was "Gnosticism", based on the Greek work for knowledge ("gnosis").  The Gnostics claimed to rely entirely on knowledge or reason, and later the word "agnostic" was coined to describe people who claim that recognition of God is impossible because it is somehow beyond human reasoning.  There are implied criticisms of the Gnostics in the letters included in the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Timothy 1:4), so this dispute goes back to the very early days of Christianity.  The Gnostics promoted works as scriptures that were doubted or rejected by other Christians, such as the "Gospels" of Thomas and Judas.  Gnostics would also edit out passages from accepted Gospels if they felt it could not be proven, such the reference in Luke to an angel coming to strengthen Jesus during his agony prior to the Crucifixion (Luke 22:43-44).  Gnosticism had its roots in pre-Christian philosophy, and it persists to this day in attempts to pick and choose from the New Testament, and supplement it with Apocrypha (non-authentic works) as in the ''Da Vinci Code'' book and movie.

Another Christian heresy was "Gnosticism", based on the Greek work for knowledge ("gnosis").  The Gnostics claimed to rely entirely on knowledge or reason, and later the word "agnostic" was coined to describe people who claim that recognition of God is impossible because it is somehow beyond human reasoning.  There are implied criticisms of the Gnostics in the letters included in the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Timothy 1:4), so this dispute goes back to the very early days of Christianity.  The Gnostics promoted works as scriptures that were doubted or rejected by other Christians, such as the "Gospels" of Thomas and Judas.  Gnostics would also edit out passages from accepted Gospels if they felt it could not be proven, such the reference in Luke to an angel coming to strengthen Jesus during his agony prior to the Crucifixion (Luke 22:43-44).  Gnosticism had its roots in pre-Christian philosophy, and it persists to this day in attempts to pick and choose from the New Testament, and supplement it with Apocrypha (non-authentic works), as in the ''Da Vinci Code'' book and movie.

===Jewish Rebellion and the Second Diaspora===

===Jewish Rebellion and the Second Diaspora===

The Roman Empire was brutal not only to the Christians but also to the Jews.  Going back to A.D. 66, Jewish "Zealots" from Judea rebelled against the Romans and a bitter struggle followed.  Titus's Roman army was far more powerful, however, and killed many of the Zealots and then senselessly destroyed the sacred temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70, leaving only the Wailing Wall that remains to this day for Jewish believers to pray before.  Then, in A.D. 73, Jewish holdouts in a fortress near Masada finally succumbed after years of courageous fighting against the more powerful Roman army.  Herod the Great had built a fortified palace there in a rocky hill on the southwest shore of the Dead Sea, between 37 and 31 B.C.  Herod built it for his own protection in case there were a Jewish revolt against him, but the Zealots later captured it for the purposes of their own revolt.  After two years of a courageous defense against the Romans, the Romans finally prevailed with a battering ram in breaching the defenses.  The oral tradition is that the Romans used Jewish slaves who the Zealots were reluctant to kill.  Rather than submit to Roman authority, the Zealots killed each other (out of respect for the Jewish prohibition against suicide).

The Roman Empire was brutal not only to the Christians but also to the Jews.  Going back to A.D. 66, Jewish "Zealots" from Judea rebelled against the Romans and a bitter struggle followed.  Titus's Roman army was far more powerful, however, and killed many of the Zealots and then senselessly destroyed the sacred temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70, leaving only the Wailing Wall that remains to this day for Jewish believers to pray before.  Then, in A.D. 73, Jewish holdouts in a fortress near Masada finally succumbed after years of courageous fighting against the more powerful Roman army.  Herod the Great had built a fortified palace there in a rocky hill on the southwest shore of the Dead Sea, between 37 and 31 B.C.  Herod built it for his own protection in case there were a Jewish revolt against him, but the Zealots later captured it for the purposes of their own revolt.  After two years of a courageous defense against the Romans, the Romans finally prevailed with a battering ram in breaching the defenses.  The oral tradition is that the Romans used Jewish slaves, whom the Zealots were reluctant to kill.  Rather than submit to Roman authority, the Zealots killed each other (out of respect for the Jewish prohibition against suicide).

Another Jewish rebellion against the Romans occurred in A.D. 132, and this time the Romans completely destroyed the Jewish state and dispersed the Jewish people to faraway lands.  This is known as the "Second Diaspora" ("diaspora" is Greek for dispersion).  (The "First Diaspora" was the Babylonian captivity.)  There would not be another Jewish homeland until 1948.  After the Second Diaspora some Jewish people converted to Christianity, while others formed Jewish communities in faraway places.  By A.D. 1000, Spain became a center for Jewish scholarship, but the Spanish Inquisition in A.D. 1492 is blamed for expelling Jews from that country.  Eastern Europe welcomed displaced Jewish settlers, and by the 17th century it became the center of the Diaspora.  In the late 1800s many Jewish people migrated to Germany and Britain, but the Holocaust in Germany during World War II destroyed Jewish communities there.  The center of the Diaspora today is the United States, which has a Jewish population of nearly 6 million, more than the 5 million Jewish population of Israel, founded in 1948.  Great Jewish centers such as Egypt and Babylon (now Iraq), which thrived in the first century, now have fewer than 1000 Jewish residents.

Another Jewish rebellion against the Romans occurred in A.D. 132, and this time the Romans completely destroyed the Jewish state and dispersed the Jewish people to faraway lands.  This is known as the "Second Diaspora" ("diaspora" is Greek for dispersion).  (The "First Diaspora" was the Babylonian captivity.)  There would not be another Jewish homeland until 1948.  After the Second Diaspora some Jewish people converted to Christianity, while others formed Jewish communities in faraway places.  By A.D. 1000, Spain became a center for Jewish scholarship, but the Spanish Inquisition in A.D. 1492 is blamed for expelling Jews from that country.  Eastern Europe welcomed displaced Jewish settlers, and by the 17th century it became the center of the Diaspora.  In the late 1800s many Jewish people migrated to Germany and Britain, but the Holocaust in Germany during World War II destroyed Jewish communities there.  The center of the Diaspora today is the United States, which has a Jewish population of nearly 6 million, more than the 5 million Jewish population of Israel, founded in 1948.  Great Jewish centers such as Egypt and Babylon (now Iraq), which thrived in the first century, now have fewer than 1000 Jewish residents.

Towards the end of the Roman empire, in the early 5th century A.D., Augustine of Hippo (known to many as "Saint Augustine") wrote books entitled ''Confessions'' and ''City of God'', which merged classical and Christian viewpoints, and in particular reconciled the classical (Greco-Roman) view about knowledge and virtue with Christian views of sin.  Born in North Africa to a pagan father and a Christian mother, Augustine went through personal spiritual crises before converting to Christianity and advocating justification by grace alone.  He criticized all the heresies of his time and supported the sacraments of the church.  He also supported the concept of "predestination", which would later be emphasized by the Frenchman John Calvin during the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s (Calvin fled to Switzerland to promote his ideas).     

Towards the end of the Roman empire, in the early 5th century A.D., Augustine of Hippo (known to many as "Saint Augustine") wrote books entitled ''Confessions'' and ''City of God'', which merged classical and Christian viewpoints, and in particular reconciled the classical (Greco-Roman) view about knowledge and virtue with Christian views of sin.  Born in North Africa to a pagan father and a Christian mother, Augustine went through personal spiritual crises before converting to Christianity and advocating justification by grace alone.  He criticized all the heresies of his time and supported the sacraments of the church.  He also supported the concept of "predestination", which would later be emphasized by the Frenchman John Calvin during the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s (Calvin fled to Switzerland to promote his ideas).     

A contemporary of Augustine was Jerome ("Saint Jerome"), who translated the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament into Latin.  This became known as the Vulgate, and remained the authoritative Bible for over 1000 years.

A contemporary of Augustine was Jerome ("Saint Jerome"), who translated the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament into Latin.  This became known as the Vulgate, and remained the authoritative Bible for more than 1000 years.

===Enemies Causing Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)===

===Enemies Causing Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)===

Ultimately two brothers, Attila and Breda, rose to power in leading the Huns.  Then Attila took power for himself by killing his brother!

Ultimately two brothers, Attila and Breda, rose to power in leading the Huns.  Then Attila took power for himself by killing his brother!

Attila became King of the Huns from A.D. 434 to 453, and he was perhaps the most vicious and barbaric military leader in history.  Known as "Attila the Hun," everyone was completely terrified of him and called him the "Scourge of God."  One rumor was that Attila was a cannibal.  He married seven women in his lifetime.  The Huns were so barbaric that they did not use fire, and would simply eat raw or semi-raw meat that they found in dead animals.  They were extremely fierce in battle.  Superb horsemen, the Huns could shoot a bow accurately while riding a horse, benefiting from stirrups that their opponents did not have.  The Huns would scream in battle and not follow any system of organized warfare, instead preferring complete chaos on the battlefield.  They would fight to the death without any regard for their own safety.  Defending against them was more difficult than, for example, fighting off hundreds of hornets after disturbing their nest.

Attila became King of the Huns from A.D. 434 to 453, and he was perhaps the most vicious and barbaric military leader in all of history.  Known as "Attila the Hun," everyone was completely terrified of him and called him the "Scourge of God."  One rumor was that Attila was a cannibal.  He married seven women in his lifetime.  The Huns were so barbaric that they did not use fire, and would simply eat raw or semi-raw meat that they found in dead animals.  They were extremely fierce in battle.  Superb horsemen, the Huns could shoot a bow accurately while riding a horse, benefiting from stirrups that their opponents did not have.  The Huns would scream in battle and not follow any system of organized warfare, instead preferring complete chaos on the battlefield.  They would fight to the death without any regard for their own safety.  Defending against them was more difficult than, for example, fighting off hundreds of hornets after disturbing their nest.

Attila the Hun himself lived a simple life, wearing plain clothes consisting of layered animal skin.  An envoy from the Eastern Roman empire who met with Attila once at dinner described it as follows:<ref>Priscus. Dinner with Attila.  Translated in Robinson, JH. Readings in European History (1905).  Available at: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/attila.htm</ref>

Attila the Hun himself lived a simple life, wearing plain clothes consisting of layered animal skin.  An envoy from the Eastern Roman empire who met with Attila once at dinner described it as follows:<ref>Priscus. Dinner with Attila.  Translated in Robinson, JH. Readings in European History (1905).  Available at: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/attila.htm</ref>

===The Byzantine Empire (in the East)===

===The Byzantine Empire (in the East)===

Constantine I ("Constantine the Great") became emperor of the western half of the Roman empire after his father died in battle.

Recall that Constantine I ("Constantine the Great") became emperor of the western half of the Roman empire after his father died in battle.

Emperor Constantine promised that he would convert to Christianity (as his mother had) if God would make him victorious in the difficult battle in A.D. 306.  Constantine won and then converted.  In A.D. 312, Constantine began using Christian symbols for his military after seeing a vision of the sign of the cross in rays of sunlight.  In 326, Constantine declared Sunday to be a religious holiday.  By the time of his death in A.D. 333, Constantine had declared Christianity as an official religion of the Roman empire, and the Eastern Orthodox Church adores him as a saint to this day.

Emperor Constantine promised that he would convert to Christianity (as his mother had) if God would make him victorious in the difficult battle in A.D. 306.  Constantine won and then converted.  In A.D. 312, Constantine began using Christian symbols for his military after seeing a vision of the sign of the cross in rays of sunlight.  In 326, Constantine declared Sunday to be a religious holiday.  By the time of his death in A.D. 333, Constantine had declared Christianity as an official religion of the Roman empire, and the Eastern Orthodox Church adores him as a saint to this day.