Changes

Sun's faction merged with several other groups to form the Nationalist Party, or KMT. Nationalist ideology is based on Sun's "Three Principles of the People" (nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people). The party gained a majority in the 1913 parliamentary elections. Backed by the army, Yuan assassinated parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren, dissolved the Nationalist Party, and ruled as a dictator. In 1915, Japan's Twenty-One demands aroused much public opposition. Yuan eventually accepted thirteen of these demands. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. Yuan had reorganized the Chinese military for the Qing Empire, so many of the army leaders felt they owed their positions to him. But few looked forward to serving his playboy son, who was heir apparent in Yuan's empire. Faced with nearly unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced his imperial pretensions after only a few months.  

Sun's faction merged with several other groups to form the Nationalist Party, or KMT. Nationalist ideology is based on Sun's "Three Principles of the People" (nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people). The party gained a majority in the 1913 parliamentary elections. Backed by the army, Yuan assassinated parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren, dissolved the Nationalist Party, and ruled as a dictator. In 1915, Japan's Twenty-One demands aroused much public opposition. Yuan eventually accepted thirteen of these demands. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. Yuan had reorganized the Chinese military for the Qing Empire, so many of the army leaders felt they owed their positions to him. But few looked forward to serving his playboy son, who was heir apparent in Yuan's empire. Faced with nearly unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced his imperial pretensions after only a few months.  

After Yuan died in 1916, central government weakened. By 1919, the "Beiyang clique" that had supported Yuan had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian. Cao Kun, head of the Zhili clique, gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. The Japanese backed Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria and leader of the rival Fengtian clique. In 1926, he gained control of Beijing, the seat of China's internationally recognized government. Beijing received revenue from the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had an international administration. But Manchuria was overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

After Yuan died in 1916, central government weakened. By 1919, the "Beiyang clique" that had supported Yuan had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian. Cao Kun, head of the Zhili clique, gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. The Japanese backed Zhang Zuolin, leader of the Fengtian clique, warlord of Manchuria, and a Qing loyalist. In 1926, he gained control of Beijing, the seat of China's internationally recognized government. Beijing received revenue from the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had an international administration. But Manchuria was overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

In spite of Beijing's militarism and Zhang's reactionary coup, the 1920s can still be viewed as China's "high modern" period. It was characterized by a reverence toward all things modern and "scientific." Writers of the May Fourth Movement abandoned Classical Chinese, a script based on the works of Confucius and other writers of ancient times. Instead, they wrote in Mandarin, the spoken language of modern northern and central China. This can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. Most shocking of all, the "modern girl" began to appear on Chinese streets in unbound feet and sporting a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.

In spite of Beijing's militarism and Zhang's reactionary coup, the 1920s can still be viewed as China's "high modern" period. It was characterized by a reverence toward all things modern and "scientific." Writers of the May Fourth Movement abandoned Classical Chinese, a script based on the works of Confucius and other writers of ancient times. Instead, they wrote in Mandarin, the spoken language of modern northern and central China. This can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. Most shocking of all, the "modern girl" began to appear on Chinese streets in unbound feet and sporting a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.