Changes

After Yuan died in 1916, central government weakened. By 1919, the "Beiyang clique" that had supported Yuan had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian. Cao Kun, head of the Zhili clique, gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. The Japanese backed Zhang Zuolin, leader of the Fengtian clique, warlord of Manchuria, and a Qing loyalist. In 1926, he gained control of Beijing, the seat of China's internationally recognized government. Beijing received revenue from the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had an international administration. But Manchuria was overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

After Yuan died in 1916, central government weakened. By 1919, the "Beiyang clique" that had supported Yuan had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian. Cao Kun, head of the Zhili clique, gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. The Japanese backed Zhang Zuolin, leader of the Fengtian clique, warlord of Manchuria, and a Qing loyalist. In 1926, he gained control of Beijing, the seat of China's internationally recognized government. Beijing received revenue from the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had an international administration. But Manchuria was overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

In spite of Beijing's militarism and Zhang's reactionary coup, the 1920s can still be viewed as China's "high modern" period. It was characterized by a reverence toward all things modern and "scientific." Writers of the May Fourth Movement abandoned Classical Chinese, a script based on the works of Confucius and other writers of ancient times. Instead, they wrote in Mandarin, the spoken language of modern northern and central China. This can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. Most shocking of all, the "modern girl" began to appear on Chinese streets in unbound feet and sporting a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.

China in the 1920s was much more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among the militarists in Beijing. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandoned Classical Chinese, a style based on the works of Confucius and other writers of ancient times.<ref>Lu Xun's ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. Most shocking of all, the "modern girl" began to appear on Chinese streets in unbound feet and sporting a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.

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Meanwhile, the Russians were building up Sun's Nationalist Party and supplying it with money and weapons. The Nationalists, who at this time were allied with the communists, proclaimed an alternative "national government" in Guangzhou in 1925, soon after Sun's death. Whampoa Academy was established to train a new generation of army officers who would be free of clique loyalties. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang. Chiang also purged the treacherous Communists and married Song Meiling, a Christian woman who would become greatly admired internationally as China’s first lady. The capital was moved to Nanjing in 1928. Nanjing's authority was established in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt by warlords in central China.

Meanwhile, the Soviets were built up Sun's Nationalist Party, revived in 1917, and supplied it with money and weapons. A united front was formed with the Communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Soon after Sun's death in 1925, the party proclaimed an alternative "national government" in the southern city of Guangzhou. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang. Chiang also purged the treacherous Communists and married Song Meiling, a Christian woman who would become greatly admired internationally as China’s first lady. The capital was moved to Nanjing in 1928. The warlords were finally brought to heel in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt in central China.

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. Nation-building took a backseat to war with Japan in 1937–1945. Japan occupied coastal areas and cut off China's access to seaports, while the Nationalists retreated to Chongqing. The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], an aviation squadron, was lionized. The Burma Road, and later the Ledo Road, were built to allow US "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. The Nationalists' Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive, but otherwise military results were disappointing.

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. Nation-building took a backseat to war with Japan in 1937–1945. Japan occupied coastal areas and cut off China's access to seaports, while the Nationalists retreated to Chongqing. The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], an aviation squadron, was lionized. The Burma Road, and later the Ledo Road, were built to allow US "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. The Nationalists' Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive, but otherwise military results were disappointing.

After Japan surrendered, the Cold War between the U.S. and Soviet Union led to renewed fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists. In 1947, the Constitution of the Republic of China replaced the Organic Law of 1928 as the country's fundamental law. In 1948, "Temporary Provisions" were added to the constitution to allow for emergency rule during the period of "communist rebellion."

After Japan surrendered, the Cold War between the U.S. and Soviet Union led to renewed fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The Communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected. By late 1947, the military initiative had shifted to the Communists. The Nationalists lost some 550,000 soldiers in the Huaihai campaign of 1948-1948, the climax of the Civil War.

 

In 1947, the Constitution of the Republic of China replaced the Organic Law of 1928 as the country's fundamental law. In 1948, "Temporary Provisions" were added to the constitution to allow for emergency rule during the period of "communist rebellion."

In 1949, the Communists established the People's Republic on the mainland, while the Nationalists retreated to [[Taiwan]]. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and the ROC seat was reassigned to Beijing.

In 1949, the Communists established the People's Republic on the mainland, while the Nationalists retreated to [[Taiwan]]. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and the ROC seat was reassigned to Beijing.

   

   

==References==

==References==

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[[Category:Chinese Dynasties]]

[[Category:Chinese Dynasties]]

[[Category:Chinese History]]

[[Category:Chinese History]]