Changes

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleon complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleon complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  Catherine the Great also gave increased power for the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  In addition, Catherine the Great gave increased power for the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

==Religious Conflict in England==

==Religious Conflict in England==

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the doctrine of “divine right of kings,” holding that the authority of a king came from God.  But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, there was after the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688 a constitutional monarchy that required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament.  In all the other countries the king (or queen) typically did whatever he (or she) wanted.

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the doctrine of “divine right of kings,” holding that the authority of a king came from God.  But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, a system of government known as a "constitutional monarchy" required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament, after the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688.  In all the other countries the king (or queen) typically did whatever he (or she) wanted.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature.  The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England.  But note that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans (who were a tendency, strictly speaking, rather than a denomination), did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature.  The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England.  But notice that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans,<ref>Strictly speaking, the Puritans were a "tendency" rather than a "denomination" of Christianity.</ref> did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”