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Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen” as she never married. It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.”<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen” as she never married. It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.”<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

Queen Elizabeth had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I and his ministers at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too amazing to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> English people commemorate this event annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and the burning of effigies.

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I, and his ministers, at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too remarkable to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just in time beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> In other words, the whole thing could have been a set up in order make a scapegoat out of Guy Fawkes and his colleagues.  But Englishmen continue to commemorate this "discovery" of the "plot" annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and the burning of effigies.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the '''religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious'''.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the '''religious "English Civil War" from 1642 to 1651, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious'''.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.  Another result of the English Civil War is that the Church of England (Anglicans) lost power and other Christian denominations grew there.

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet ''Histrio Mastix'' (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term a “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet ''Histrio Mastix'' (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

But Prynne, even with his ears cropped, continued to write pamphlets.  In 1637 he was further punished by branding the remainder of his ears.  In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne.  He was then even elected to Parliament in 1648.  But in December 1648 the English army (led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) held a coup that excluded more than 100 Charles-friendly members of Parliament from the House of Commons.  That was known as “Pride’s Purge.”  The remaining “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of Charles I.  With all the fighting and religious persecution, it is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England!

But Prynne, even with his ears cropped, continued to write pamphlets.  In 1637 he was further punished by branding the remainder of his ears.  In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne.  He was then even elected to Parliament in 1648.  But in December 1648 the English army (led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) held a coup that excluded more than 100 members of Parliament, who were supporters of Charles I, from the House of Commons.  That was known as “Pride’s Purge.”  The remaining “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of King Charles I.  With all the fighting and religious persecution, it is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England!

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government.  But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator with the title of Lord Protector (but not a “king”), which he did until his death in 1658.  Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another.  The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government.  But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator with the title of Lord Protector (but not a “king”), which he did until his death in 1658.  Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another.  The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

To this day Cromwell is loved by many in England, but hated by others.  The Irish, which suffered from his brutality in Ireland, vilify Cromwell.  Royalists, or those who love the English monarchy, also hated Cromwell and even dug up his corpse to behead him once the monarchy regained power.  The anger against Cromwell was so great that his severed head was displayed outside Westminster Abbey for over 20 years, from 1661 to 1685, and the remainder of his corpse thrown into a disgraceful pit.

To this day Cromwell is loved by many in England, but hated by others.  The Irish, which suffered from his brutality in Ireland, vilify Cromwell.  Royalists, or those who love the English monarchy, also hated Cromwell and even dug up his corpse to behead him when the monarchy regained power.  The anger against Cromwell was so great that his severed head was displayed outside Westminster Abbey for over 20 years, from 1661 to 1685, and the remainder of his corpse thrown into a disgraceful pit.

After Cromwell’s death, his son Richard became Lord Protector. He was extremely ineffective and indecisive. The older son of Charles I took the throne as Charles II and instituted the Restoration (of the monarchy) in 1660. Richard Cromwell was allowed to retire to his estate in Huntingdonshire (perhaps a sign that the monarchy had nothing to fear from him). Charles ruled until his death in 1685, during which he established the rights of prisoners not to be held unless there was a good reason.  This was the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679, which became a basic right under the U.S. Constitution, Article One, Section Nine (“The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.”).  Also during the reign of Charles II the first political parties developed, known as the Whigs, a party which favored free trade, limits on the power of the monarch and tolerance of non-conformist protestants, and Tories, an aristocratic party which supported the King and the Church of England.

After Cromwell passed away peacefully in London, his son Richard became Lord Protector. But Richard was extremely ineffective and indecisive. He was replaced by the older son of King Charles I, who had been executed as part of the English Civil War.  Charles II returned from exile to take the throne, and instituted the Restoration (of the monarchy) in 1660. Richard Cromwell was allowed to retire to his estate in Huntingdonshire (perhaps a sign that the monarchy had nothing to fear from him). King Charles II ruled from 1660 until his death in 1685, during which he established the rights of prisoners not to be held unless there was a good reason.  This was the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679, which became a basic right under the U.S. Constitution, Article One, Section Nine (“The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.”).  Also during the reign of Charles II the first political parties developed, known as the Whigs, a party which favored free trade, limits on the power of the monarch and tolerance of non-conformist protestants, and the Tories, an aristocratic party which supported the King and the Church of England.

James II, a Catholic, was the second son of Charles I and succeeded Charles II to the throne.  The Catholic-Anglican conflict had been ongoing for over a hundred years, and many Protestants were unhappy about having a Catholic rule the country.  Even now in England there are laws prohibiting a Catholic or a person married to a Catholic from becoming King or Queen. In 1688, the Protestants in Parliament asked Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, to rule England (and Scotland) along with her Protestant husband William of Orange.  James II was forced to flee to France, where he died in exile in 1701.

James II, a Catholic, was the second son of Charles I and succeeded Charles II to the throne.  The Catholic-Anglican conflict had been ongoing for over a hundred years, and many Protestants were unhappy about having a Catholic rule the country.  Even now in England there are laws prohibiting a Catholic or a person married to a Catholic from becoming King or Queen. In 1688, the Protestants in Parliament asked Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, to rule England (and Scotland) along with her Protestant husband William of Orange.  James II was forced to flee to France, where he died in exile in 1701.

This transfer in power during 1688-1689 became known as the “Glorious Revolution,” or the bloodless revolt.  But while the ouster of James II itself was bloodless, it was incited in part by the execution of 300 persons (and sale into slavery of another 800) who participated in the 1685 revolt against James II known as (Duke) Monmouth’s Rebellion.   

This transfer in power during 1688-1689 became known as the “Glorious Revolution,” or the bloodless revolt.  But while the ouster of James II itself was bloodless, it was incited in part by the execution of 300 persons (and sale into slavery of another 800) who participated in the 1685 revolt against James II. This revolt is known as (Duke) Monmouth’s Rebellion.   

William and Mary were the only “joint sovereigns” in British history such that each had equal power, because usually the spouse of a monarch has no power and serves merely as a “consort”.  The College of William and Mary in Virginia, founded by this king and queen in 1693, is the second oldest college in America.  Mary died in 1694, and William then ruled alone until 1702, when he died.  

William and Mary were the only “joint sovereigns” in British history such that each had equal power, because usually '''''either''''' the king '''''or''''' the queen has all the power and the spouse (if any) serves merely as a “consort”.  The College of William and Mary in Virginia, founded by this king and queen in 1693, is the second oldest college in America.  Mary died in 1694, and William then ruled alone until 1702, when he died.  

[[Image:UK map.jpg|right|200px]]  

[[Image:UK map.jpg|right|200px]]  

William and Mary agreed in 1689 to a new Bill of Rights proposed by Parliament, which prevented a monarch from:

William and Mary agreed in 1689 to a new Bill of Rights proposed by Parliament, which prevented a monarch from: