Changes

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleon complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleon complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  In addition, Catherine the Great gave increased power for the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  In addition, Catherine the Great gave increased power to the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

==Religious Conflict in England==

==Religious Conflict in England==

Queen Elizabeth had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

Queen Elizabeth had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I, and his ministers, at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too remarkable to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just in time beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> In other words, the whole thing could have been a set up in order make a scapegoat out of Guy Fawkes and his colleagues.  But Englishmen continue to commemorate this "discovery" of the "plot" annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and the burning of effigies.

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I, and his ministers, at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too remarkable to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just in time beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> In other words, the whole thing could have been a setup in order make a scapegoat out of Guy Fawkes and his colleagues.  But Englishmen continue to commemorate this "discovery" of the "plot" annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and the burning of effigies.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the '''religious "English Civil War" from 1642 to 1651, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious'''.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.  Another result of the English Civil War is that the Church of England (Anglicans) lost power and other Christian denominations grew there.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the '''religious "English Civil War" from 1642 to 1651, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious'''.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.  Another result of the English Civil War is that the Church of England (Anglicans) lost power and other Christian denominations could then grow there.

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet ''Histrio Mastix'' (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet ''Histrio Mastix'' (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

Napoleon made other strategic mistakes also.  His blockade against Great Britain in 1806, known as the Continental System, did not help him.  His Peninsular War against Spain from 1808 to 1813 was hurtful also.

Napoleon made other strategic mistakes also.  His blockade against Great Britain in 1806, known as the Continental System, did not help him.  His Peninsular War against Spain from 1808 to 1813 was hurtful also.

By 1813 Napoleon’s army was weak enough for a massive army of opponent nations to finally defeat him, at the [[Battle of Leipzig]].  The coalition of forces from Austria, Prussia, Russia and Sweden outnumbered Napoleon's army by a two-to-one margin.  By the following year, in 1814, Napoleon could see that he would have to give up his throne, and his opponents sent him off to an island in the Mediterranean known as Elba.  Napoleon remained banished there for a year, but escaped in March 1815 to grab power over France again for “The Hundred Days.”  But in June 1815, the Prussia and Great Britain defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, and this time Napoleon was shipped to the distant island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821.   

By 1813 Napoleon’s army was weak enough for massive armies of other nations to combine to defeat him, at the [[Battle of Leipzig]].  The coalition of forces from Austria, Prussia, Russia and Sweden outnumbered Napoleon's army by a two-to-one margin.  By the following year, in 1814, Napoleon could see that he would have to give up his throne, and his opponents sent him off to an island in the Mediterranean known as Elba.  Napoleon remained banished there for a year, but escaped in March 1815 to grab power over France again for “The Hundred Days.”  But in June 1815, the Prussia and Great Britain defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, and this time Napoleon was shipped to the distant island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821.   

In a fascinating historical investigation about ten years ago, scientists analyzed hair samples from Napoleon’s corpse and found arsenic.  This led the scientists to conclude that Napoleon had died from poisoning.  But then other scientists said that the arsenic was from hair tonic, not poisoning, and that no one had murdered Napoleon after all.

In a fascinating historical investigation about ten years ago, scientists analyzed hair samples from Napoleon’s corpse and found arsenic.  This led the scientists to conclude that Napoleon had died from poisoning.  But then other scientists said that the arsenic was from hair tonic, not poisoning, and that no one had murdered Napoleon after all.

===Congress of Vienna===

===Congress of Vienna===

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria in late 1814 through the first half of 1815 to hold the “Congress of Vienna.”  Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there.  Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others.  Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out.  This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats.  These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe''' beginning in 1815.  In 1818 France itself entered into an alliance with the Quadruple Alliance powers of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, all of whom belonged to the "Concert of Europe."

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria in late 1814 through the first half of 1815 to hold the “Congress of Vienna.”  Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there.  Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others.  Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out.  This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats.  These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe''' beginning in 1815.  In 1818 France itself entered into an alliance with the Quadruple Alliance powers of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, all of which was part of the "Concert of Europe."

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.