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===Congress of Vienna===

===Congress of Vienna===

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria in late 1814 through the first half of 1815 to hold the “Congress of Vienna.”  Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there.  Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others.  Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out.  This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats.  These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe''' beginning in 1815.  In 1818 France itself entered into an alliance with the Quadruple Alliance powers of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, all of which was part of the "Concert of Europe."

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria in late 1814 through the first half of 1815 to hold the “Congress of Vienna.”  Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there.  Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others.  Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out.  This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats.  These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe''' beginning in 1815.  In 1818 France itself entered into an alliance with the Quadruple Alliance powers of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, all of which became part of the "Concert of Europe."

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people having both Indian and European ancestors) in a rebellion against Spain.  This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles.  Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles.  Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815.  The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.   

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people having both Indian and European ancestors) in a rebellion against Spain.  This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles.  Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles.  Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815.  The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.   

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

A Native American governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was succeeded by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was succeeded by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Native American descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the remainder of the 20th century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

A Mexican Constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the remainder of the 20th century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

===China===

===China===