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Wilhelm was a constitutional monarch and shared power with an elected parliament, or Reichstag. However, the Kaiser had the final say on all significant matters, including appointments.<ref name=rohl18>Röhl, John C. G., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FN9GAgAAQBAJ&dq= Wilhelm II: Into the Abyss of War and Exile, 1900–1941]'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. xxviii.</ref> His supporters boasted that he was the "mightiest ruler on earth."<ref name=rohl17>Röhl, p. xxvii.</ref> His views were particularly influential in foreign affairs and on matters of war and peace.

Wilhelm was a constitutional monarch and shared power with an elected parliament, or Reichstag. However, the Kaiser had the final say on all significant matters, including appointments.<ref name=rohl18>Röhl, John C. G., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FN9GAgAAQBAJ&dq= Wilhelm II: Into the Abyss of War and Exile, 1900–1941]'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. xxviii.</ref> His supporters boasted that he was the "mightiest ruler on earth."<ref name=rohl17>Röhl, p. xxvii.</ref> His views were particularly influential in foreign affairs and on matters of war and peace.

In August 1914, the German army invaded France through Belgium, triggering [[World War I]]. The Allied Powers of France, Russia, and Britain opposed this aggression. For several years, fighting remained deadlocked as trench warfare continued across northern France. In early 1917, effective control of German policy passed to General Ludendorff, an advocate of total war, including unrestricted submarine warfare.<ref>Ludendorff, Erich, ''Der totale Krieg,'' München, Ludendorffs Verlag, g.m.b.h., 1935.</ref> When German submarines blockaded Britain and attacked neutral shipping, the United States declared war on Germany. In November 1918, the war ended in a catastrophic defeat for Germany. By that time, over 4.2 million Germans had been killed. Wilhelm fled to the Netherlands and lived in exile until 1941.

[[World War I]] began in August 1914 with a massive German invasion of France by way of Belgium. The Allied Powers of France, Russia, and Britain opposed this aggression. For several years, fighting remained deadlocked as trench warfare continued across northern France. When German submarines blockaded Britain and attacked neutral shipping in 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. In November 1918, the war ended in a catastrophic defeat for Germany. By that time, over 4.2 million Germans had been killed. Wilhelm fled to the Netherlands and lived in exile until 1941.

===Personality and policies===

===Personality and policies===

A meeting of the German Imperial War Council on December 8, 1912 was identified by German historian Fritz Fischer as the moment when the imperial government resolved upon war.<ref name=rohl18 /> The meeting consisted of the Kaiser and four advisors.<ref name=stemple /> In June 1913, the Reichstag approved a dramatic expansion of the army.<ref>The German army was expanded from 544,000 soldiers to 870,000. It was the largest expansion since 1871.</ref> In December, the Reichstag took a brief, futile stand against the onrush of militarism in an episode called the Zabern Affair.<ref>There was public outrage in response to abuses by a military officer in the Alsacian town of Zabern. On December 4, 1913, the Reichstag voted no confidence in Bethmann by a margin of 293 to 54. Under the German constitution, the emperor had exclusive authority over appointments. But if the budget had been rejected, Bethmann might have been forced out of office. In the end, only the Social Democrats (110 seats) and the Polish Party (18 seats) voted against the budget. Germany had failed to take advantage of its best chance to achieve parliamentary democracy and head off war.</ref> However, army expansion was confirmed when the annual budget was passed on December 9.

A meeting of the German Imperial War Council on December 8, 1912 was identified by German historian Fritz Fischer as the moment when the imperial government resolved upon war.<ref name=rohl18 /> The meeting consisted of the Kaiser and four advisors.<ref name=stemple /> In June 1913, the Reichstag approved a dramatic expansion of the army.<ref>The German army was expanded from 544,000 soldiers to 870,000. It was the largest expansion since 1871.</ref> In December, the Reichstag took a brief, futile stand against the onrush of militarism in an episode called the Zabern Affair.<ref>There was public outrage in response to abuses by a military officer in the Alsacian town of Zabern. On December 4, 1913, the Reichstag voted no confidence in Bethmann by a margin of 293 to 54. Under the German constitution, the emperor had exclusive authority over appointments. But if the budget had been rejected, Bethmann might have been forced out of office. In the end, only the Social Democrats (110 seats) and the Polish Party (18 seats) voted against the budget. Germany had failed to take advantage of its best chance to achieve parliamentary democracy and head off war.</ref> However, army expansion was confirmed when the annual budget was passed on December 9.

The murder of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a final diplomatic crisis in July 1914. This time, Bethmann withheld and even falsified the increasingly urgent messages sent by the troublesome Lichnowsky.<ref>Röhl, p. 1052</ref> When Wilhelm finally realized that the British still intended to side with the French, he attempted to reverse course. His last minute change of heart proved to be too little, too late.<ref name=rohl18 />

The murder of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a final diplomatic crisis in July 1914. This time, Bethmann withheld and even falsified the increasingly urgent messages sent by the troublesome Lichnowsky.<ref>Röhl, p. 1052</ref> When Wilhelm realized that the British still intended to side with the French, he attempted to reverse course. His last minute change of heart proved to be too little, too late.<ref name=rohl18 />

Germany declared war on Russia on August 1 and on France on August 3. On August 4, this was followed up with a declaration of war on Belgium. The invasion of Belgium was part of the Schlieffen Plan, Germany's long standing plan of war. When the news that Germany had declared war on Belgium arrived, the British cabinet was still discussing its response to the earlier declarations, deadlocked on the issue of war. The German invasion of Belgium allowed Britain to enter the war as a unified nation.

Germany declared war on Russia on August 1 and on France on August 3. On August 4, this was followed up with a declaration of war on Belgium. The Schlieffen Plan, Germany's longstanding war plan, called for a massive deployment through Belgium to outflank the French. When the news that Germany had declared war on Belgium arrived, the British cabinet was still discussing its response to the earlier declarations, deadlocked on the issue of war. The German invasion of Belgium allowed Britain to enter the war as a unified nation.

===Later years===

===Later years===

Wilhelm appointed generals Ludendorff and Hindenburg to head the army in August 1916. Promising victory, their prestige soon became so great that they could boss the government around. Ludendorff persuaded the government to adopt "unrestricted" submarine warfare in January 1917. In April 1917, the United States responded with a declaration of war. In July 1917, Ludendorff forced Bethmann to resign. Ludendorff launched a great offensive in France in March 1918. By August, the Allies had learned to counter Ludendorff's strategies and his offensive sputtered to a close. With American forces on the way, there would be no second chance. As the soldiers realized victory was no longer possible, the front collapsed. Wilhelm refused to abdicate, but fled to the Netherlands on November 9, 1918. He lived quietly as a country gentleman in Huis Doom until his death in 1941.

Wilhelm appointed generals Ludendorff and Hindenburg to head the army in August 1916. Promising victory, their prestige grew so great they could boss the imperial government around. On Ludendorff's initiative, Germany adopted "unrestricted" submarine warfare in January 1917. In April, the United States responded with a declaration of war. In July, Ludendorff forced Bethmann to resign. Ludendorff launched a great offensive in France in March 1918. By August, the Allies had learned to counter Ludendorff's strategies and his offensive sputtered to a close. With American forces on the way, there would be no second chance. As the soldiers realized victory was no longer possible, the front collapsed. Wilhelm refused to abdicate, but fled to the Netherlands on November 9, 1918. He lived quietly as a country gentleman in Huis Doom until his death in 1941.

The Kaiser's non-political passions were Greek archaeology and chopping wood. He excavated the Temple of Artemis in Corfu. He chopped down thousands of trees during his stay in Doom.

The Kaiser's non-political passions were Greek archaeology and chopping wood. He excavated the Temple of Artemis in Corfu. He chopped down thousands of trees during his stay in Doom.