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'''Oliver Cromwell''' (1599-1658) was an English soldier, statesman, and leader of the [[Puritans|Puritan]] revolution. He rose from the ranks of the middle gentry to become an outstanding soldier; his genius for organizing and inspiring the parliamentary armies, called the "[[New Model Army]]" and nicknamed "roundheads", was displayed at the battle of Marston Moor (1644).  His admiring soldiers called him "Old Ironsides".  Victory in the field allowed him to execute the king in 1649 and become a virtual dictator; after 1653 he ruled under the title "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland." He executed an aggressive and generally effective foreign policy. He also promoted education. Cromwell did as much as any English ruler to shape the future of the land he governed, but his Commonwealth collapsed after his death and the royal family was restored in 1660.  

'''Oliver Cromwell''' (1599-1658) was an English soldier, statesman, and leader of the [[Puritans|Puritan]] revolution. He rose from the ranks of the middle gentry to become an outstanding soldier; his genius for organizing and inspiring the parliamentary armies, called the "[[New Model Army]]" and nicknamed "roundheads", was displayed at the battle of Marston Moor (1644).  His admiring soldiers called him "Old Ironsides".  Victory in the field allowed him to execute the king in 1649 and become a virtual dictator; after 1653 he ruled under the title "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland." He executed an aggressive and generally effective foreign policy. He also promoted education. Cromwell did as much as any English ruler to shape the future of the land he governed, but his Commonwealth collapsed after his death and the royal family was restored in 1660.  

An intensely religious man--almost a Puritan [[Moses]]--he fervently believed God was guiding his victories. However he was never identified with any one sect or position, and favoured religious tolerance, except towards Catholics.  His many admirers called him "God's Englishman".   

An intensely religious man—almost a Puritan [[Moses]]—he fervently believed God was guiding his victories. However he was never identified with any one sect or position, and favoured religious tolerance, except towards Catholics.  His many admirers called him "God's Englishman".   

Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in British history. Strongly held opinions stretch from those who label him a regicidal dictator who trampled on glorious royal traditions or a religious fanatic and a near-genocidal murderer of the Irish Catholics, to those who celebrate a hero of liberty who helped make the nation great. Most historians now have a favourable view of Cromwell's achievements and character. Recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.

Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in British history. Strongly held opinions stretch from those who label him a regicidal dictator who trampled on glorious royal traditions or a religious fanatic and a near-genocidal murderer of the Irish Catholics, to those who celebrate a hero of liberty who helped make the nation great. Most historians now have a favourable view of Cromwell's achievements and character. Recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.

==Early Life==

==Early life==

Cromwell was born at Huntingdon in eastern England on April 25, 1599. His father, Robert Cromwell, and his mother, Elizabeth Steward, were typical English country gentlefolk. His father was a younger son of a family founded by Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), a minister of [[Henry VIII]]; they had acquired considerable wealth by taking over monastery property during the [[Reformation]]. At the time of Oliver's birth his grandfather, Sir Henry Cromwell, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire, but his father was of modest means. Oliver was sent to the Huntingdon Grammar School and afterwards for one year only to Sidney Sussex College at [[Cambridge University]]. His father died when he was 18, and Oliver, the only surviving son, left the university to look after his mother and six sisters. He studied law for a time at the [[Inns of Court]] in London, and at 21 he married Elizabeth Bourchier, the daughter of a London leather merchant. He then returned to Huntingdon and settled down as a farmer.

Cromwell was born at Huntingdon in eastern England on April 25, 1599. His father, Robert Cromwell, and his mother, Elizabeth Steward, were typical English country gentlefolk. His father was a younger son of a family founded by Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), a minister of [[Henry VIII]]; they had acquired considerable wealth by taking over monastery property during the [[Reformation]]. At the time of Oliver's birth his grandfather, Sir Henry Cromwell, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire, but his father was of modest means. Oliver was sent to the Huntingdon Grammar School and afterwards for one year only to Sidney Sussex College at [[Cambridge University]]. His father died when he was 18, and Oliver, the only surviving son, left the university to look after his mother and six sisters. He studied law for a time at the [[Inns of Court]] in London, and at 21 he married Elizabeth Bourchier, the daughter of a London leather merchant. He then returned to Huntingdon and settled down as a farmer.

==Politics ==

==Politics ==

For 20 years Cromwell followed the stable and common career of a country gentleman and farmer, taking a prominent part in local affairs. In 1628, he was sponsored by the Montagu family and elected by Huntingdon to the last parliament summoned by King [[Charles I]] before the 11-year period (1629-1640) during which the latter tried to rule without one--the so-called "Eleven Years Tyranny."  Cromwell's only speech in the Parliament of 1628-1629 was a fierce attack upon the High Church bishops. About 1628 he had a profound religious conversion that shaped his life; he became involved in local networks of Puritans, did some lay preaching, and considered a move to the Puritan colony of [[Connecticut]].

For 20 years Cromwell followed the stable and common career of a country gentleman and farmer, taking a prominent part in local affairs. In 1628, he was sponsored by the Montagu family and elected by Huntingdon to the last parliament summoned by King [[Charles I]] before the 11-year period (1629-1640) during which the latter tried to rule without one—the so-called "Eleven Years Tyranny."  Cromwell's only speech in the Parliament of 1628-1629 was a fierce attack upon the High Church bishops. About 1628 he had a profound religious conversion that shaped his life; he became involved in local networks of Puritans, did some lay preaching, and considered a move to the Puritan colony of [[Connecticut]].

In 1631 after a humiliating political defeat in Huntingdon, and near bankrupt, he moved to St. Ives, and four years later to Ely. About this time he caught [[malaria]], which troubled him sporadically and shortened his life.  An inheritance in 1636 brought him the adequate income of £300 a year.

In 1631 after a humiliating political defeat in Huntingdon, and near bankrupt, he moved to St. Ives, and four years later to Ely. About this time he caught [[malaria]], which troubled him sporadically and shortened his life.  An inheritance in 1636 brought him the adequate income of £300 a year.

===The Long Parliament===

===The Long Parliament===

During the summer of 1640 King Charles was again defeated and humbled by the Scottish rebels. He appealed for help to a new parliament, which met in the autumn, with Cromwell again M.P. for Cambridge. This "Long Parliament," as it was to be called, repudiated the king's policies and obliged him to surrender many of his prerogative powers. It put to death one of the king's chief ministers, the Earl of Strafford. Cromwell and a majority of the Commons voted for a "Grand Remonstrance" against the government, and showed they did not trust the king. When the Irish rose up in rebellion in 1641, Parliament demanded the power to appoint all the king's ministers and principal army officers--an unprecedented step.  

During the summer of 1640 King Charles was again defeated and humbled by the Scottish rebels. He appealed for help to a new parliament, which met in the autumn, with Cromwell again M.P. for Cambridge. This "Long Parliament," as it was to be called, repudiated the king's policies and obliged him to surrender many of his prerogative powers. It put to death one of the king's chief ministers, the Earl of Strafford. Cromwell and a majority of the Commons voted for a "Grand Remonstrance" against the government, and showed they did not trust the king. When the Irish rose up in rebellion in 1641, Parliament demanded the power to appoint all the king's ministers and principal army officers—an unprecedented step.  

The king was eventually goaded to arrest five of the parliamentary leaders for treason. When this coup failed, King Charles left London to rally his supporters in the north of England. The Commons retorted by seizing "the power of the sword" and sending M.P.'s into their constituencies to gain control of local armories and militia. Cromwell himself went to Cambridge, took possession of the castle, arrested a captain of the militia, and prevented the colleges from sending their silver plate to the king, who was short of money. He raised a troop of 60 cavalry and searched for suspected royalists.

The king was eventually goaded to arrest five of the parliamentary leaders for treason. When this coup failed, King Charles left London to rally his supporters in the north of England. The Commons retorted by seizing "the power of the sword" and sending M.P.'s into their constituencies to gain control of local armories and militia. Cromwell himself went to Cambridge, took possession of the castle, arrested a captain of the militia, and prevented the colleges from sending their silver plate to the king, who was short of money. He raised a troop of 60 cavalry and searched for suspected royalists.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became officers because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for plain men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing psalms, convinced that God was on their side.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became officers because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for plain men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing psalms, convinced that God was on their side.

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".<ref> See [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers]</ref> who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the Bible.  

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers See]</ref> who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the Bible.  

==General Cromwell==

==General Cromwell==

Puritans immediately recognized and appreciated his firm, fair and aggressive leadership. In a military career that only lasted a decade, he fought in more than thirty battles, and took part in more than forty sieges, without ever tasting defeat. The extraordinary self-discipline of his cavalry charges proved decisive in several of the greatest battles of the war, and earned Cromwell himself, and then his men, the title "Ironsides."  He demanded that promotions and commands be given not to the well-born (who wore long flowing [[hair]]) but to the godly (who cut their hair short and were called '''"roundheads"''').  "I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else."<ref> Letter #16, Sept. 11, 1638</ref> The two Houses moved to reorganize their armies in the winter of 1644-45, and created a new major assault force, the New Model Army. Cromwell was, to the joy of the radicals, and the dismay of the more cautious Parliamentarians, given command of the cavalry, effectively the number two position in the Army.  

Puritans immediately recognized and appreciated his firm, fair and aggressive leadership. In a military career that only lasted a decade, he fought in more than thirty battles, and took part in more than forty sieges, without ever tasting defeat. The extraordinary self-discipline of his cavalry charges proved decisive in several of the greatest battles of the war, and earned Cromwell himself, and then his men, the title "Ironsides."  He demanded that promotions and commands be given not to the well-born (who wore long flowing [[hair]]) but to the godly (who cut their hair short and were called '''"roundheads"''').  "I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else."<ref>Letter #16, Sept. 11, 1638</ref> The two Houses moved to reorganize their armies in the winter of 1644-45, and created a new major assault force, the New Model Army. Cromwell was, to the joy of the radicals, and the dismay of the more cautious Parliamentarians, given command of the cavalry, effectively the number two position in the Army.  

===Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby===

===Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby===

Oliver Cromwell, now a lieutenant general, fought alongside the Scots and a northern army under Lord Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas, at the Battle of Marston Moor in Yorkshire on July 2, 1644, where the king's army, led by Prince Rupert, was outnumbered and defeated.  

Oliver Cromwell, now a lieutenant general, fought alongside the Scots and a northern army under Lord Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas, at the Battle of Marston Moor in Yorkshire on July 2, 1644, where the king's army, led by Prince Rupert, was outnumbered and defeated.  

When Drogheda fell to the siege in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people. Although this figure comprised around 2,700 royalist soldiers and all the men in the town bearing arms, a concerted propaganda campaign followed which ensured Cromwell was seen as a bloodthirsty tyrant in the national consciousness of Ireland. As recently as the 20th century Irish novelist [[James Joyce]] wrote in his novel ''[[Ulysses]]'': "''What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text "God is love" pasted round the mouth of his cannon?''".

When Drogheda fell to the siege in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people. Although this figure comprised around 2,700 royalist soldiers and all the men in the town bearing arms, a concerted propaganda campaign followed which ensured Cromwell was seen as a bloodthirsty tyrant in the national consciousness of Ireland. As recently as the 20th century Irish novelist [[James Joyce]] wrote in his novel ''[[Ulysses]]'': "''What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text "God is love" pasted round the mouth of his cannon?''".

On September 10-11 his army stormed the town, and killed most of the surviving garrison, which had refused to surrender. Cromwell said that the killing at Drogheda had the goal of encouraging other garrisons to surrender and not fight to the death; indeed it induced some other Irish garrisons to surrender, such as Trim, Ross and Dundalk. In October the garrison at Wexford repulsed Cromwell's army but was overcome; here again no quarter was given once the garrison refused to surrender, and this time the town was plundered.  By the end of the year most of the eastern coast of Ireland was in Cromwell's hands. Early in 1650 he marched his army inland, ravaging the land and slaughtering the populace regardless of age or sex.

On September 10–11 his army stormed the town, and killed most of the surviving garrison, which had refused to surrender. Cromwell said that the killing at Drogheda had the goal of encouraging other garrisons to surrender and not fight to the death; indeed it induced some other Irish garrisons to surrender, such as Trim, Ross and Dundalk. In October the garrison at Wexford repulsed Cromwell's army but was overcome; here again no quarter was given once the garrison refused to surrender, and this time the town was plundered.  By the end of the year most of the eastern coast of Ireland was in Cromwell's hands. Early in 1650 he marched his army inland, ravaging the land and slaughtering the populace regardless of age or sex.

===Destroying the power of the Irish Catholics===

===Destroying the power of the Irish Catholics===

In an effort to avert war, Cromwell appealed to the General Assembly of the [[Church of Scotland]] to break their alliance with the royalists, famously urging them: ''"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."'' The Scot's rejected peace, and Cromwell invaded in August, 1650.

In an effort to avert war, Cromwell appealed to the General Assembly of the [[Church of Scotland]] to break their alliance with the royalists, famously urging them: ''"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."'' The Scot's rejected peace, and Cromwell invaded in August, 1650.

The English republic was threatened because Scotland's Presbyterian [[Covenanters]] had come to terms with Charles I's eldest son, [[Charles II]]. General Fairfax resigned rather than invade Scotland, and Cromwell took his place as commander in chief. He crossed the Scottish border on July 22, 1650, but at first made little headway against the defensive strategy of the Scottish commander. As in Ireland his campaign was supported by English sea power, the importance of which he appreciated. Although cut off from his English base, Cromwell won a great victory at Dunbar (30 miles [48 km] east of Edinburgh) on Sept. 3, 1650. Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.  

The English republic was threatened because Scotland's Presbyterian [[Covenanters]] had come to terms with Charles I's eldest son, [[Charles II]]. General Fairfax resigned rather than invade Scotland, and Cromwell took his place as commander in chief. He crossed the Scottish border on July 22, 1650, but at first made little headway against the defensive strategy of the Scottish commander. As in Ireland his campaign was supported by English sea power, the importance of which he appreciated. Although cut off from his English base, Cromwell won a great victory at Dunbar (30 miles [48&nbsp;km] east of Edinburgh) on Sept. 3, 1650. Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3, 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.  

During the winter 1650-51 Cromwell was taken ill and the army bogged down. But the following summer he outmaneuvered the Scots who, rather than allow themselves to have their lines of communication cut, followed the young King Charles II into England. Charles II and the remaining Covenanters was making a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation.  Cromwell was welcomed as a hero on his return to London.

During the winter 1650-51 Cromwell was taken ill and the army bogged down. But the following summer he outmaneuvered the Scots who, rather than allow themselves to have their lines of communication cut, followed the young King Charles II into England. Charles II and the remaining Covenanters was making a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation.  Cromwell was welcomed as a hero on his return to London.

The Nominated Parliament set about reform with enthusiasm, but was soon split between a radical and a conservative wing. When the conservative wing gained control in December 1653 after a tussle, the majority resigned their powers into Cromwell's hands. This coup d'état was engineered by Cromwell's second-in-command, [[John Lambert]]; and it was Lambert who drew up an '''"Instrument of Government"''' as a new constitution for the English commonwealth. This constitution provided for an elected parliament, a nominated council of state, and a lord protector as chief executive officer. Cromwell was offered and accepted the post of Lord Protector, not as a dictator but as the first servant of the Commonwealth of England, united with conquered Scotland and Ireland.  There was widespread [[republicanism]] and a sense that the old monarchical system was dead.

The Nominated Parliament set about reform with enthusiasm, but was soon split between a radical and a conservative wing. When the conservative wing gained control in December 1653 after a tussle, the majority resigned their powers into Cromwell's hands. This coup d'état was engineered by Cromwell's second-in-command, [[John Lambert]]; and it was Lambert who drew up an '''"Instrument of Government"''' as a new constitution for the English commonwealth. This constitution provided for an elected parliament, a nominated council of state, and a lord protector as chief executive officer. Cromwell was offered and accepted the post of Lord Protector, not as a dictator but as the first servant of the Commonwealth of England, united with conquered Scotland and Ireland.  There was widespread [[republicanism]] and a sense that the old monarchical system was dead.

Some officers wanted Cromwell to become a hereditary king but he refused and instead took the title Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.  Cromwell did made the decisions--he was a dictator in that sense--but he rarely broke the law.  He preferred persuasion to coercion and did not try to impose an authoritarian regime that tolerated only one set of ideas. His experiment with major-generals taking control of England has aspects of a military dictatorship, but the experiment lasted less than 15 months in 1655-57, and the generals did not in fact loom large in deciding local policies. So it verged upon, but did not reach, military rule.  When offered the crown, Cromwell said no. He did set up his son as his successor, but made no serious preparations and the son was soon ousted.<ref> Austin Woolrych, (1990)</ref>

Some officers wanted Cromwell to become a hereditary king but he refused and instead took the title Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.  Cromwell did made the decisions—he was a dictator in that sense—but he rarely broke the law.  He preferred persuasion to coercion and did not try to impose an authoritarian regime that tolerated only one set of ideas. His experiment with major-generals taking control of England has aspects of a military dictatorship, but the experiment lasted less than 15 months in 1655-57, and the generals did not in fact loom large in deciding local policies. So it verged upon, but did not reach, military rule.  When offered the crown, Cromwell said no. He did set up his son as his successor, but made no serious preparations and the son was soon ousted.<ref>Austin Woolrych, (1990)</ref>

==Lord Protector==

==Lord Protector==

===Foreign affairs===

===Foreign affairs===

For the last few months of his life Cromwell governed without a parliament. The war (with France) against Spain was virtually won, thanks to naval victories. A naval expedition to the West Indies resulted in the capture of [[Jamaica]] from Spain (May 1655), and Cromwell tried to convert it into a flourishing British colony.<ref> James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica." ''History Today'' 2005 55(5): 15-22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> In June 1658 he also obtained the port of [[Dunkirk]] as payment for the French alliance. After the peace with Holland in 1654, commerce had expanded.

For the last few months of his life Cromwell governed without a parliament. The war (with France) against Spain was virtually won, thanks to naval victories. A naval expedition to the West Indies resulted in the capture of [[Jamaica]] from Spain (May 1655), and Cromwell tried to convert it into a flourishing British colony.<ref>James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica." ''History Today'' 2005 55(5): 15-22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> In June 1658 he also obtained the port of [[Dunkirk]] as payment for the French alliance. After the peace with Holland in 1654, commerce had expanded.

Cromwell in 1654-55 launched a vastly ambitious "Western Design", with conquest of key Spanish territories in the West Indies; it failed badly because of defeats, disease and [[guerrilla]] resistance. Cromwell despaired that God had turned against him, while public reactions focused on the failure of English character and masculinity, revealing the ideological structures that underpinned both imperial expansion and the English revolution during the 1650s. Contemporary accounts dwelt on the disastrous campaign to control Jamaica, contrasting the supposedly cowardly conduct of General Robert Venables in Jamaica with the heroism of Major General James Heane in Hispaniola, suggesting that Venables's pusillanimity reflected a general failure of the British troops to live up to the ideal of godly valor and English superiority, associated in the public mind with the New Model Army. The Western Design debacle was a crisis for Cromwell's protectorate, straining the notion that God favored Puritan England, but the vision of Heane's martial virtues ultimately provided a model that guided the future success of the British Empire.<ref> Jamaica was permanently captured, at great cost. James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica," ''History Today'' 55, No. 5 (May 2005) pp 15-22; Carla Gardina Pestana, "English Character and the Fiasco of the Western Design." ''Early American Studies'' 2005 3(1): 1-31. Issn: 1543-4273 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Cromwell in 1654-55 launched a vastly ambitious "Western Design", with conquest of key Spanish territories in the West Indies; it failed badly because of defeats, disease and [[guerrilla]] resistance. Cromwell despaired that God had turned against him, while public reactions focused on the failure of English character and masculinity, revealing the ideological structures that underpinned both imperial expansion and the English revolution during the 1650s. Contemporary accounts dwelt on the disastrous campaign to control Jamaica, contrasting the supposedly cowardly conduct of General Robert Venables in Jamaica with the heroism of Major General James Heane in Hispaniola, suggesting that Venables's pusillanimity reflected a general failure of the British troops to live up to the ideal of godly valor and English superiority, associated in the public mind with the New Model Army. The Western Design debacle was a crisis for Cromwell's protectorate, straining the notion that God favored Puritan England, but the vision of Heane's martial virtues ultimately provided a model that guided the future success of the British Empire.<ref>Jamaica was permanently captured, at great cost. James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica," ''History Today'' 55, No. 5 (May 2005) pp 15-22; Carla Gardina Pestana, "English Character and the Fiasco of the Western Design." ''Early American Studies'' 2005 3(1): 1-31. Issn: 1543-4273 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Toleration===

===Toleration===

Cromwell fought hard against the more bigoted Puritans to maintain genuine freedom for the Christian religion, permitting even Episcopalians and Roman Catholics to worship in private houses. He appointed good judges, and pressed his legal advisers to reform the law and make it less expensive. He promoted education; for a time he was chancellor of Oxford University, and helped to found a college at Durham. The regime's religious policies fell significantly short of comprehensive toleration, though; rather, Cromwell offered liberty of conscience to a broad range of independent sects, whose members he sought to draw together in a united 'godly party'. Anglicans, Catholics and some of the more radical Protestant groups were excluded from the embrace of official toleration.<ref> See Blair Worden, "Toleration and the Cromwellian Protectorate" in W.J. Sheils, ed., "Persecution and Toleration Studies" in ''Studies Church History,''(1984) v.21</ref>

Cromwell fought hard against the more bigoted Puritans to maintain genuine freedom for the Christian religion, permitting even Episcopalians and Roman Catholics to worship in private houses. He appointed good judges, and pressed his legal advisers to reform the law and make it less expensive. He promoted education; for a time he was chancellor of Oxford University, and helped to found a college at Durham. The regime's religious policies fell significantly short of comprehensive toleration, though; rather, Cromwell offered liberty of conscience to a broad range of independent sects, whose members he sought to draw together in a united 'godly party'. Anglicans, Catholics and some of the more radical Protestant groups were excluded from the embrace of official toleration.<ref>See Blair Worden, "Toleration and the Cromwellian Protectorate" in W.J. Sheils, ed., "Persecution and Toleration Studies" in ''Studies Church History,''(1984) v.21</ref>

===Levellers===

===Levellers===

Blair Warden, a leading historian, reports, "From his century to ours, Oliver Cromwell has been the most controversial figure of English history."<ref>Blair Warden, "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22From+his+century+to+ours,+Oliver+Cromwell%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=Zjm1_A4NGCzCyrl8RpbIB-47Dug  ''Historical Controversies And Historians'' (1998) p. 35]</ref> First, Cromwell is well known and highly thought of; recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.<ref>"Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC Polls</ref> Second, his importance and influence is beyond doubt, as is his stature as an outstanding soldier and diplomat. The main facts of his career are not in dispute, only the moral evaluation of those facts.<ref>Compare the controversies over King [[Richard III]], who was a minor player as king for less than two years and whose facts are in dispute.</ref> Third, the range and intensity of opinion is extreme, from those who laud him as a champion of liberty and republicanism who uplifted Britain's stature in the world, to those who hate him; labeling him a regicide and murderer of many Irish Catholics. The debate ranges from commoners to kings, and historians have been deeply involved. In the 1930s and 1940s most scholars saw him as a dangerous dictator, along the lines of Mussolini, Stalin and Hitler. In recent decades most all the scholars have been favorable.

Blair Warden, a leading historian, reports, "From his century to ours, Oliver Cromwell has been the most controversial figure of English history."<ref>Blair Warden, "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22From+his+century+to+ours,+Oliver+Cromwell%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=Zjm1_A4NGCzCyrl8RpbIB-47Dug  ''Historical Controversies And Historians'' (1998) p. 35]</ref> First, Cromwell is well known and highly thought of; recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.<ref>"Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC Polls</ref> Second, his importance and influence is beyond doubt, as is his stature as an outstanding soldier and diplomat. The main facts of his career are not in dispute, only the moral evaluation of those facts.<ref>Compare the controversies over King [[Richard III]], who was a minor player as king for less than two years and whose facts are in dispute.</ref> Third, the range and intensity of opinion is extreme, from those who laud him as a champion of liberty and republicanism who uplifted Britain's stature in the world, to those who hate him; labeling him a regicide and murderer of many Irish Catholics. The debate ranges from commoners to kings, and historians have been deeply involved. In the 1930s and 1940s most scholars saw him as a dangerous dictator, along the lines of Mussolini, Stalin and Hitler. In recent decades most all the scholars have been favorable.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, ''The Machiavilian Cromwell'' and ''The Juglers Discovered'', both part of an attack on Cromwell by the [[Levellers]] after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure.  After his death and public disgrace there were many denunciations and a few positive portrayals, such as John Spittlehouse's ''A Warning Piece Discharged'' which compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.<ref>John Morrill,  "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, (1990) pp. 263–4, 271-2 </ref> The great royalist historian Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1667) declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. The aristocracy was especially hostile to Cromwell, in large part because of his strong appeal to the common folk.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, ''The Machiavilian Cromwell'' and ''The Juglers Discovered'', both part of an attack on Cromwell by the [[Levellers]] after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure.  After his death and public disgrace there were many denunciations and a few positive portrayals, such as John Spittlehouse's ''A Warning Piece Discharged'' which compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.<ref>John Morrill,  "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, (1990) pp. 263–4, 271-2</ref> The great royalist historian Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1667) declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. The aristocracy was especially hostile to Cromwell, in large part because of his strong appeal to the common folk.

In the early 18th century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the [[Whig Party|Whigs]], an out-party opposing the Tories around the Hanoverian kings. They stressed Cromwell as [[Republicanism|republican]], a theme often adopted by American historians.<ref>Blair Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity'' (2001). pp. 53–59.</ref>

In the early 18th century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the [[Whig Party|Whigs]], an out-party opposing the Tories around the Hanoverian kings. They stressed Cromwell as [[Republicanism|republican]], a theme often adopted by American historians.<ref>Blair Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity'' (2001). pp. 53–59.</ref>

During the early 19th century, Cromwell's image was glorified by Romantic artists and poets. French author Victor Hugo's 1827 play ''Cromwell'' was representative of the French romantic movement, showing Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. The major breakthrough came at the hands of a leading Romantic historian, [[Thomas Carlyle]] who in the 1840s saw Cromwell as the hero in a battle between good and evil. Carlyle used Cromwell as a model for restoring morality to a [[Victorian era]] that otherwise was prone to timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. The growth of Nonconformity in the nineteenth century encouraged an appreciation of Cromwell's Puritanism.

During the early 19th century, Cromwell's image was glorified by Romantic artists and poets. French author Victor Hugo's 1827 play ''Cromwell'' was representative of the French romantic movement, showing Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. The major breakthrough came at the hands of a leading Romantic historian, [[Thomas Carlyle]] who in the 1840s saw Cromwell as the hero in a battle between good and evil. Carlyle used Cromwell as a model for restoring morality to a [[Victorian era]] that otherwise was prone to timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. The growth of Nonconformity in the nineteenth century encouraged an appreciation of Cromwell's Puritanism.

By the late 19th century, Carlyle’s portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into mainstream [[historiography]]. Britain's outstanding research scholar on the era, [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner]], concluded that "the man &mdash; it is ever so with the noblest &mdash; was greater than his work". <ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 315.</ref> Gardiner demonstrated Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in ridding England of obsolete absolutism, while downplaying Cromwell’s intense religiosity.<ref>Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations'' (2001) pp. 256–260.</ref> Gardner showed Cromwell’s aggressive foreign policy was a foretaste Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.<ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 318.</ref>

By the late 19th century, Carlyle’s portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into mainstream [[historiography]]. Britain's outstanding research scholar on the era, [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner]], concluded that "the man &mdash; it is ever so with the noblest &mdash; was greater than his work".<ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 315.</ref> Gardiner demonstrated Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in ridding England of obsolete absolutism, while downplaying Cromwell’s intense religiosity.<ref>Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations'' (2001) pp. 256–260.</ref> Gardner showed Cromwell’s aggressive foreign policy was a foretaste Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.<ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 318.</ref>

Royals dislike regicides, so King [[George V]] vetoed Churchill's proposal in 1915 to name a battleship "The Cromwell"; but King [[George VI]] made no objection to the naming of a class of tanks that helped to win [[World War II]] after Old Ironsides. In the mid-20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often shaped by the rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler. In the 1930s Wilbur Cortez Abott, a Harvard professor, compiled and edited a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, and concluded Cromwell had fascist tendencies. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.<ref>John Morrill, "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' (1990). v33#3, pp. 629-639.</ref>

Royals dislike regicides, so King [[George V]] vetoed Churchill's proposal in 1915 to name a battleship "The Cromwell"; but King [[George VI]] made no objection to the naming of a class of tanks that helped to win [[World War II]] after Old Ironsides. In the mid-20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often shaped by the rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler. In the 1930s Wilbur Cortez Abott, a Harvard professor, compiled and edited a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, and concluded Cromwell had fascist tendencies. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.<ref>John Morrill, "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' (1990). v33#3, pp. 629-639.</ref>

Cromwell's reputation is now in the ascendant. More than twenty biographies by academic historians have been published in the past fifty years; all but one have been laudatory. They praise his integrity, his reliance upon his God, his brilliance as a soldier, his restless energy as head of state. There are varying estimates of the long-term effects of his role in the British Revolutions; but no recent biographer doubts that he was a man to be admired.<ref> Morrill (2003)</ref>

Cromwell's reputation is now in the ascendant. More than twenty biographies by academic historians have been published in the past fifty years; all but one have been laudatory. They praise his integrity, his reliance upon his God, his brilliance as a soldier, his restless energy as head of state. There are varying estimates of the long-term effects of his role in the British Revolutions; but no recent biographer doubts that he was a man to be admired.<ref>Morrill (2003)</ref>

Recent scholars have emphasized Cromwell’s religiosity and downplayed his authoritarian style. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement, by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God, and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief purpose of government.<ref>Austin Woolrych, "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' (1990) 75(244): 207-231</ref>

Recent scholars have emphasized Cromwell’s religiosity and downplayed his authoritarian style. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement, by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God, and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief purpose of government.<ref>Austin Woolrych, "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' (1990) 75(244): 207-231</ref>

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have explored Cromwell's religious rhetoric, showing his speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<ref>Morrill "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765]; Blair Worden, "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., ''History, Society and the Churches'' (1985); J.C. Davis, "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990). </ref>

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have explored Cromwell's religious rhetoric, showing his speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<ref>Morrill "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765]; Blair Worden, "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., ''History, Society and the Churches'' (1985); J.C. Davis, "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990).</ref>

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

===Military studies===

===Military studies===

* Capp,  Bernard. ''Cromwell's Navy:The fleet and the English Revolution, 1648-1660'' (1989)  

* Capp,  Bernard. ''Cromwell's Navy:The fleet and the English Revolution, 1648-1660'' (1989)  

* Durston, Christopher. "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in ''History'' 2000 85(278): pp.247-267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at [[Ebsco]]

* Durston, Christopher. "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in ''History'' 2000 85(278): pp.&nbsp;247–267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at [[Ebsco]]

* Durston, Christopher. "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in ''English Historical Review'' 1998 113(450): pp.18-37, ISSN 0013-8266  

* Durston, Christopher. "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in ''English Historical Review'' 1998 113(450): pp.&nbsp;18–37, ISSN 0013-8266  

* Durston, Christopher. ''Cromwell's Major Generals: Godly Government during the English Revolution'' (2001)

* Durston, Christopher. ''Cromwell's Major Generals: Godly Government during the English Revolution'' (2001)

* Firth, C.H.  ''Cromwell's Army'' (1902), [http://books.google.com/books?id=hx4kAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Cromwell%27s+intitle:Army&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 online edition]

* Firth, C.H.  ''Cromwell's Army'' (1902), [http://books.google.com/books?id=hx4kAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Cromwell%27s+intitle:Army&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 online edition]

* Lunger Knoppers, Laura. ''Constructing Cromwell. Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645-1661'' (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.

* Lunger Knoppers, Laura. ''Constructing Cromwell. Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645-1661'' (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.

* Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: a Case of Deafening Silences." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 2003 38(3): 553-578. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: a Case of Deafening Silences." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 2003 38(3): 553-578. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in ''Proceedings Of The British Academy''(2000) 105: pp.131-170. ISSN 0068-1202 .

* Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in ''Proceedings Of The British Academy''(2000) 105: pp.&nbsp;131–170. ISSN 0068-1202 .

* Worden, Blair. ''Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity'' (2001), 387pp; ISBN 0-14-100694-3.

* Worden, Blair. ''Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity'' (2001), 387pp; ISBN 0-14-100694-3.

* Warden, Blair. "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. '' ''Historical Controversies and Historians'' (1998) 35-48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22 online]

* Warden, Blair. "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. '' ''Historical Controversies and Historians'' (1998) 35-48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22 online]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* Abbott, W.C., ed.  ''Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,'' 4 vols. (1937-47).The largest reference for Cromwell's own words [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition].

* Abbott, W.C., ed.  ''Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,'' 4 vols. (1937–47).The largest reference for Cromwell's own words [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition].

** Morrill, John. "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' 1990 33(3): pp.629-639. ISSN 0018-246X . [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2639734 in Jstor] Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.

** Morrill, John. "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' 1990 33(3): pp.&nbsp;629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2639734 in Jstor] Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]

* Haykin, Michael A. G. ed. ''To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell'' (1999).  ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.

* Haykin, Michael A. G. ed. ''To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell'' (1999).  ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.