Changes

==Ireland==

==Ireland==

Meanwhile the Royalists had gained control of most of Ireland, which they hoped to use as a base for an invasion of England. Cromwell decided to eliminate the threat by invading. After occupying Dublin in August, 1649, he led his army north and laid siege to [[Drogheda]].  

Meanwhile, the Royalists had gained control of most of Ireland, which they hoped to use as a base for an invasion of England. Cromwell decided to eliminate the threat by invading. After occupying Dublin in August, 1649, he led his army north and laid siege to [[Drogheda]].  

===Drogheda===

===Drogheda===

===Constitutional experiments===

===Constitutional experiments===

Meanwhile England was involved in a fresh war, this time waged against the Spanish Empire; Cromwell, needing money, called a new Parliament to vote him supplies. It met in fall 1656; Cromwell argued on behalf of his policies, but met with considerable opposition, especially from out-and-out republicans who objected to the whole idea of the Protectorate. The new House was therefore in effect "purged" of 160 members, many of whom refused to take an oath to uphold the structure of the Protectorate. The remaining members, on the whole, cooperated with Cromwell and his Council of State. But they were opposed to the system of local government through the major generals. Rather than sustain military rule, a group of lawyers and civilians proposed to create a constitutional monarchy and a Puritan Church, with Cromwell as king.

Meanwhile, England was involved in a fresh war, this time waged against the Spanish Empire; Cromwell, needing money, called a new Parliament to vote him supplies. It met in fall 1656; Cromwell argued on behalf of his policies, but met with considerable opposition, especially from out-and-out republicans who objected to the whole idea of the Protectorate. The new House was therefore in effect "purged" of 160 members, many of whom refused to take an oath to uphold the structure of the Protectorate. The remaining members, on the whole, cooperated with Cromwell and his Council of State. But they were opposed to the system of local government through the major generals. Rather than sustain military rule, a group of lawyers and civilians proposed to create a constitutional monarchy and a Puritan Church, with Cromwell as king.

Cromwell was tempted by the offer of a crown, but eventually, largely because of the opposition of his old friends and supporters in the army, he refused it. Nevertheless a new constitution was promulgated, providing for a revived House of Lords; a Lower House, to which all except known royalists were to be admitted; a Privy Council, replacing the Council of State; and certain restrictions on the powers of the lord protector and on freedom of religion. This constitution, originally called "the Humble Petition and Advice", came into effect in June 1657. A House of Lords was nominated, but the second Protectorate House of Commons, reinforced by the excluded members and deprived of Cromwell's friends whom he had promoted to the upper House, met in January 1658, to be the scene of an immediate attack launched upon the Protector by the republicans, and aiming to tear the new constitution to pieces.

Cromwell was tempted by the offer of a crown, but eventually, largely because of the opposition of his old friends and supporters in the army, he refused it. Nevertheless, a new constitution was promulgated, providing for a revived House of Lords; a Lower House, to which all except known royalists were to be admitted; a Privy Council, replacing the Council of State; and certain restrictions on the powers of the lord protector and on freedom of religion. This constitution, originally called "the Humble Petition and Advice", came into effect in June 1657. A House of Lords was nominated, but the second Protectorate House of Commons, reinforced by the excluded members and deprived of Cromwell's friends whom he had promoted to the upper House, met in January 1658, to be the scene of an immediate attack launched upon the Protector by the republicans, and aiming to tear the new constitution to pieces.

Cromwell was at last angered beyond restraint. Convinced that a fresh squabble in Parliament would be followed by a Royalist invasion, he promptly dissolved Parliament on Feb. 4, 1658.

Cromwell was at last angered beyond restraint. Convinced that a fresh squabble in Parliament would be followed by a Royalist invasion, he promptly dissolved Parliament on Feb. 4, 1658.

* Little, Patrick. "Offering the Crown to Cromwell." ''History Today'' 2007 57(2): 24-31. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Little, Patrick. "Offering the Crown to Cromwell." ''History Today'' 2007 57(2): 24-31. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Little, Patrick and David L. Smith, eds. ''Parliaments and Politics during the Cromwellian Protectorate'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Parliaments-Politics-Cromwellian-Protectorate-Cambridge/dp/0521838673/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300336&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

* Little, Patrick and David L. Smith, eds. ''Parliaments and Politics during the Cromwellian Protectorate'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Parliaments-Politics-Cromwellian-Protectorate-Cambridge/dp/0521838673/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300336&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

* Peacey, Jason. "Cromwellian England: a Propaganda State?" ''History'' 2006 91(2): 176-199. Issn: 0018-2648 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]], says that in 1653-1659, profound changes were implemented in intelligence gathering, press censorship, and propaganda and in the deployment of resources and bureaucratic efficiency. By concentrating power in the hands of the secretary of state, Cromwell;s regime sought to exert its power in only some areas of print culture rather than to achieve a complete press monopoly.

* Peacey, Jason. "Cromwellian England: a Propaganda State?" ''History'' 2006 91(2): 176-199. Issn: 0018-2648 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]], says that in 1653-1659, profound changes were implemented in intelligence gathering, press censorship, and propaganda and in the deployment of resources and bureaucratic efficiency. By concentrating power in the hands of the secretary of state, Cromwell's regime sought to exert its power in only some areas of print culture rather than to achieve a complete press monopoly.

* Smith, David, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum'' (2003), ISBN 0-631-22725-3.  

* Smith, David, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum'' (2003), ISBN 0-631-22725-3.  

* Smith, David. ''Oliver Cromwell: Politics and Religion in the English Revolution 1640-1658'' (1992)  [http://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-Revolution-1640-1658-Cambridge/dp/0521388961/ref=sr_1_36?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181977&sr=1-36 excerpt and text search]

* Smith, David. ''Oliver Cromwell: Politics and Religion in the English Revolution 1640-1658'' (1992)  [http://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-Revolution-1640-1658-Cambridge/dp/0521388961/ref=sr_1_36?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181977&sr=1-36 excerpt and text search]

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]

* Haykin, Michael A. G. ed. ''To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell'' (1999).  ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.

* Haykin, Michael A. G. ed. ''To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell'' (1999).  ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.

* Roots, Ivan. ''Speeches of Oliver Cromwell'' (1989, ISBN 0-460-01254-1.

* Roots, Ivan. ''Speeches of Oliver Cromwell'' (1989, ISBN 0-460-01254-1.)

====Notes====

====Notes====