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'''Henry VIII''' (b. June 28, 1491, d. January 28, 1547) was the King of [[England]] and Lord of [[Ireland]] from April 22, 1509 until his death. A larger-than-life figure and one of England's most famous monarchs, he was the second monarch of the [[Tudor Dynasty]], succeeding his father [[Henry VII]], and was one of the most powerful and formative rulers in British history.  Henry was a powerfully built, athletic, attractive, domineering but charismatic man, educated and accomplished.  He was the last English king to rule with absolute power. His need for a male heir to perpetuate the Tudor Dynasty led to his having six marriages.  

'''Henry VIII''' (June 28, 1491 – January 28, 1547) was the King of [[England]] and Lord of [[Ireland]] from April 22, 1509 until his death. A larger-than-life figure and one of England's most famous monarchs, he was the second monarch of the [[Tudor Dynasty]], succeeding his father [[Henry VII]], and was one of the most powerful and formative rulers in British history.  Henry was a powerfully built, athletic, attractive, domineering but charismatic man, educated and accomplished.  He was the last English king to rule with absolute power. His need for a male heir to perpetuate the Tudor Dynasty led to his having six marriages.  

It was under Henry's children and successors, Edward VI and Elizabeth I, that the [[English Reformation]] was fashioned as a compromise between the [[Lutheran]]s and [[Calvinist]]s on the one hand and the [[Catholic]]s on the other. Nevertheless, Henry's famous break with the Papacy facilitated later events affecting the English Church.  

It was under Henry's children and successors, Edward VI and Elizabeth I, that the [[English Reformation]] was fashioned as a compromise between the [[Lutheran]]s and [[Calvinist]]s on the one hand and the [[Catholic]]s on the other. Nevertheless, Henry's famous break with the Papacy facilitated later events affecting the English Church.  

By 1527 Henry had become deeply infatuated with [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed acceptance of the annullment.  

By 1527 Henry had become deeply infatuated with [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed acceptance of the annullment.  

Henry then made the decision to break from the Roman Catholic Church, which he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, and which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir by Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king rather than to the Pope.  Many could not sign -- and died.  With Henry now head of the [[Church of England]], his divorce/annullment was granted and he married Anne in 1533. She bacame a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine.  

Henry then made the decision to break from the Roman Catholic Church, which he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, and which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir by Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king rather than to the Pope.  Many could not sign—and died.  With Henry now head of the [[Church of England]], his divorce/annullment was granted and he married Anne in 1533. She bacame a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine.  

Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and it was a son that Henry desired to have.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential of his wives. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref> G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and it was a son that Henry desired to have.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential of his wives. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref>G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

===Later marriages===

===Later marriages===

Henry started as a staunch Catholic and wrote ''Assertio Septem Sacramentorum'', a treatise in which he defended the Church against [[Martin Luther]] and asserted the primacy of the [[Pope]].  The Pope gave Henry the title Fidei Defensor [[Defender of the Faith]], a style still used by the English monarch today.   

Henry started as a staunch Catholic and wrote ''Assertio Septem Sacramentorum'', a treatise in which he defended the Church against [[Martin Luther]] and asserted the primacy of the [[Pope]].  The Pope gave Henry the title Fidei Defensor [[Defender of the Faith]], a style still used by the English monarch today.   

However, Henry broke with the Pope on two issues, the divorce, and control over the Church inside England, as he declared himself head of the Church in England. Disagreement with Henry on religious issues was a political affront, and he could not tolerate it.  Some wealthy or intellectual Catholics fled to France; others stayed quiet. Moderate reform took place in the 1530s because Queen Anne and top aides Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell had the king's ear and carried out attacks on the old religion. Queen Anne patronized and promoted clergy and bishops of a reforming turn of mind; Cromwell (1485?–1540), the Earl of Essex, was a convinced reformer and in effect the ruthless and unpopular prime minister from 1532 until he fell from favour and was beheaded in 1540. Cranmer (1489–1556) was archbishop of Canterbury after 1533. <ref> After Henry's death Cranmer wrote much of the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1549, revised 1552), the centerpiece of the Anglican Church.</ref>  Henry persecuted of those who still held to Papal Supremacy,  and encouraged Protestant ideas to flourish. Protestantism was officially established during the reign of Henry’s son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]].

However, Henry broke with the Pope on two issues, the divorce, and control over the Church inside England, as he declared himself head of the Church in England. Disagreement with Henry on religious issues was a political affront, and he could not tolerate it.  Some wealthy or intellectual Catholics fled to France; others stayed quiet. Moderate reform took place in the 1530s because Queen Anne and top aides Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell had the king's ear and carried out attacks on the old religion. Queen Anne patronized and promoted clergy and bishops of a reforming turn of mind; Cromwell (1485?–1540), the Earl of Essex, was a convinced reformer and in effect the ruthless and unpopular prime minister from 1532 until he fell from favour and was beheaded in 1540. Cranmer (1489–1556) was archbishop of Canterbury after 1533.<ref>After Henry's death Cranmer wrote much of the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1549, revised 1552), the centerpiece of the Anglican Church.</ref>  Henry persecuted of those who still held to Papal Supremacy,  and encouraged Protestant ideas to flourish. Protestantism was officially established during the reign of Henry’s son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]].

==Power and authority==

==Power and authority==

From 1514 to 1529 [[Thomas Wolsey]] (1473–1530), a Catholic cardinal, served as  lord chancellor and practically controlled domestic and foreign policy for the young king. He negotiated the truce with France that was signaled by the dramatic display of amity on the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520). He switched England back and forth as an ally of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Wolsey centralized the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts, particularly the Star Chamber. His use of forced loans to pay for foreign wars angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. Wolsey disappointed the king when he failed to secure a quick divorce from Queen Katherine.  The treasury was empty after years of extravagance; the peers and people were dissatisfied and Henry needed an entirely new approach; Wolsey had to be replaced. After 16 years at the top he lost power in 1529 and in 1530 was arrested on false charges of treason and died in custody. Henry then took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other.

From 1514 to 1529 [[Thomas Wolsey]] (1473–1530), a Catholic cardinal, served as  lord chancellor and practically controlled domestic and foreign policy for the young king. He negotiated the truce with France that was signaled by the dramatic display of amity on the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520). He switched England back and forth as an ally of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Wolsey centralized the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts, particularly the Star Chamber. His use of forced loans to pay for foreign wars angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. Wolsey disappointed the king when he failed to secure a quick divorce from Queen Katherine.  The treasury was empty after years of extravagance; the peers and people were dissatisfied and Henry needed an entirely new approach; Wolsey had to be replaced. After 16 years at the top he lost power in 1529 and in 1530 was arrested on false charges of treason and died in custody. Henry then took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other.

Elton (1962) argues there was a major Tudor revolution in government. While crediting Henry with intelligence and shrewdness, Elton finds that much of the positive action, especially the break with Rome, was the work of Thomas Cromwell and not the king. Elton sees Henry as competent, but too lazy to take direct control of affairs for any extended period; that is, the king was an opportunist who relied on others for most of his ideas and to do most of the work. Henry's marital adventures are part of Elron's chain of evidence; a man who marries six wives, Elton notes, is not someone who fully controls his own fate. Elton shows that Thomas Cromwell had conceived of a commonwealth of England that included popular participation through Parliament and that this was generally expressed in the preambles to legislation. Parliamentary consent did not mean that the king had yielded any of his authority; Henry VIII was a paternalistic ruler who did not hesitate to use his power. Popular "consent" was a means to augment rather than limit royal power.<ref> G. R. Elton, ''The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII'' (1962) [http://www.questia.com/read/2993196?title=The%20Tudor%20Revolution%20in%20Government%3a%20Administrative%20Changes%20in%20the%20Reign%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]; Elton, ''Reform and Reformation: England, 1509-1558'' (1977) is sharply hostile toward the king--an "ego-centric monstrosity," whose reign "owed its successes and virtues to better and greater men about him; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from himself." p. 43</ref>

Elton (1962) argues there was a major Tudor revolution in government. While crediting Henry with intelligence and shrewdness, Elton finds that much of the positive action, especially the break with Rome, was the work of Thomas Cromwell and not the king. Elton sees Henry as competent, but too lazy to take direct control of affairs for any extended period; that is, the king was an opportunist who relied on others for most of his ideas and to do most of the work. Henry's marital adventures are part of Elron's chain of evidence; a man who marries six wives, Elton notes, is not someone who fully controls his own fate. Elton shows that Thomas Cromwell had conceived of a commonwealth of England that included popular participation through Parliament and that this was generally expressed in the preambles to legislation. Parliamentary consent did not mean that the king had yielded any of his authority; Henry VIII was a paternalistic ruler who did not hesitate to use his power. Popular "consent" was a means to augment rather than limit royal power.<ref>G. R. Elton, ''The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII'' (1962) [http://www.questia.com/read/2993196?title=The%20Tudor%20Revolution%20in%20Government%3a%20Administrative%20Changes%20in%20the%20Reign%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]; Elton, ''Reform and Reformation: England, 1509-1558'' (1977) is sharply hostile toward the king--an "ego-centric monstrosity," whose reign "owed its successes and virtues to better and greater men about him; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from himself." p. 43</ref>

==Reformation==

==Reformation==

Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head of the church in England.  This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church, the [[Anglican Church|Church of England]].  The pope behaved more as an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which often obscured his religious role. The Church treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no possibility of becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable that major decisions in England were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem.  As long as Cardinal Wolsey dominated the government the widespread sentiment for reform could go nowhere.<ref> A. F. Pollard, ''Henry VIII'' (1905) provides the classic statement of the Henrician position, esp. pp 230-38, noting that Spain and France stayed loyal because they controlled the papacy.</ref>  

Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head of the church in England.  This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church, the [[Anglican Church|Church of England]].  The pope behaved more as an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which often obscured his religious role. The Church treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no possibility of becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable that major decisions in England were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem.  As long as Cardinal Wolsey dominated the government the widespread sentiment for reform could go nowhere.<ref>A. F. Pollard, ''Henry VIII'' (1905) provides the classic statement of the Henrician position, esp. pp 230-38, noting that Spain and France stayed loyal because they controlled the papacy.</ref>  

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536-37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref> G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536-37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref>G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Critical for the Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected was [[Martin Luther]]'s new interpretation of the fourth commandment and was mediated to an English audience by [[William Tyndale]]. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives emphasized good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God in order to persuade Henry to publish the "Great Bible," an English translation that was a formidable prop for his new-found dignity.<ref> Richard Rex, "The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation." ''Historical Journal'' 1996 39(4): 863-894. Issn: 0018-246x [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639860  in Jstor]</ref>

Critical for the Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected was [[Martin Luther]]'s new interpretation of the fourth commandment and was mediated to an English audience by [[William Tyndale]]. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives emphasized good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God in order to persuade Henry to publish the "Great Bible," an English translation that was a formidable prop for his new-found dignity.<ref>Richard Rex, "The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation." ''Historical Journal'' 1996 39(4): 863-894. Issn: 0018-246x [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639860  in Jstor]</ref>

    

    

===Dissolving the monasteries===

===Dissolving the monasteries===

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.  

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.  

The reforms alienated pious folk who believed in the old rituals depended on the monasteries for religious devotions and helped provoke the great northern rising of 1536-1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all his reign.  Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended.<ref> M. L. Bush, "The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace." ''Historical Research'' 2007 80(207): 47-72. Issn: 0950-3471 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Geoffrey Moorhouse, ''The Pilgrimage of Grace: The Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Pilgrimage-Grace-Rebellion-Shook-Throne/dp/1842126660/ref=pd_ts_b_33?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]</ref> Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, as those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy; they would reemerge in the reign (1553-58) of Henry's daughter Mary.

The reforms alienated pious folk who believed in the old rituals depended on the monasteries for religious devotions and helped provoke the great northern rising of 1536-1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all his reign.  Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended.<ref>M. L. Bush, "The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace." ''Historical Research'' 2007 80(207): 47-72. Issn: 0950-3471 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Geoffrey Moorhouse, ''The Pilgrimage of Grace: The Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Pilgrimage-Grace-Rebellion-Shook-Throne/dp/1842126660/ref=pd_ts_b_33?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]</ref> Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, as those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy; they would reemerge in the reign (1553–58) of Henry's daughter Mary.

==Public image and memory==

==Public image and memory==

Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power. He executed at will, beheading  more English notables than any monarch before or since. The roll of heads included two wives, one cardinal, twenty peers, four leading public servants, and six of the king's close attendants and friends, not to mention various heads of monasteries. In addition Cardinal Wolsey died in prison.  

Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power. He executed at will, beheading  more English notables than any monarch before or since. The roll of heads included two wives, one cardinal, twenty peers, four leading public servants, and six of the king's close attendants and friends, not to mention various heads of monasteries. In addition Cardinal Wolsey died in prison.  

A big, strong man (over six foot tall and broad in proportion)<ref>People were smaller in those days. A comparable man today would be a star athlete at 6'5" and 250 pounds.</ref>, he excelled at jousting and hunting. More than pastimes, they were political devices that served multiple goals, from enhancing his athletic royal image to impressing foreign emissaries and rulers, to conveying Henry's ability to suppress any rebellion.  Thus he arranged a jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517, where he wore gilded armour, gilded horse trappings, and outfits of velvet, satin and cloth of gold dripping with pearls and jewels. It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of whom wrote home that, "The wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such." Henry finally retired from the lists in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year.<ref>Steven Gunn, "Tournaments and early Tudor chivalry," ''History Today,'' (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in [[Academic Search Premier]];  James Williams, "Hunting and the Royal Image of Henry VIII" ''Sport in History'' 2005 25(1): 41-59. Issn: 1746-0263 </ref> He then started adding weight and lost that trim athletic look that had made him so handsome; Henry's courtiers began dressing in heavily padded clothes to emulate--and flatter--their increasingly stout monarch.  

A big, strong man (over six foot tall and broad in proportion),<ref>People were smaller in those days. A comparable man today would be a star athlete at 6'5" and 250 pounds.</ref> he excelled at jousting and hunting. More than pastimes, they were political devices that served multiple goals, from enhancing his athletic royal image to impressing foreign emissaries and rulers, to conveying Henry's ability to suppress any rebellion.  Thus he arranged a jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517, where he wore gilded armour, gilded horse trappings, and outfits of velvet, satin and cloth of gold dripping with pearls and jewels. It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of whom wrote home that, "The wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such." Henry finally retired from the lists in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year.<ref>Steven Gunn, "Tournaments and early Tudor chivalry," ''History Today,'' (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in [[Academic Search Premier]];  James Williams, "Hunting and the Royal Image of Henry VIII" ''Sport in History'' 2005 25(1): 41-59. Issn: 1746-0263</ref> He then started adding weight and lost that trim athletic look that had made him so handsome; Henry's courtiers began dressing in heavily padded clothes to emulate—and flatter—their increasingly stout monarch.  

Henry loved palaces; he began with a dozen and died with fifty-five, in which he hung 2,000 tapestries.<ref>Simon Thurley, "Palaces for a nouveau riche king." ''History Today,'' (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in [[Academic Search Premier]]</ref> He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordnance and 6,500 handguns.<ref> Jonathan Davies, "'We Do Fynde in Our Countre Great Lack of Bowes and Arrows': Tudor Military Archery and the Inventory of King Henry VIII," ''Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research'' 2005 83(333): 11-29. Issn: 0037-9700 </ref>  

Henry loved palaces; he began with a dozen and died with fifty-five, in which he hung 2,000 tapestries.<ref>Simon Thurley, "Palaces for a nouveau riche king." ''History Today,'' (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in [[Academic Search Premier]]</ref> He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordnance and 6,500 handguns.<ref>Jonathan Davies, "'We Do Fynde in Our Countre Great Lack of Bowes and Arrows': Tudor Military Archery and the Inventory of King Henry VIII," ''Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research'' 2005 83(333): 11-29. Issn: 0037-9700</ref>  

Henry was an intellectual; the first well-educated English king, he was thoroughly at home in his well-stocked library; he personally annotated many books and wrote and published his own book.   

Henry was an intellectual; the first well-educated English king, he was thoroughly at home in his well-stocked library; he personally annotated many books and wrote and published his own book.   

To promote the public support for the reformation of the church, Henry had numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared. For example, Richard Sampson's ''Oratio'' (1534) was a legalistic argument for absolute obedience to the temporal power as vested in divine law and Christian love ("obey my commandments"). Sampson cited historical precedents (now known to be spurious) to support his claim that the English church had always been independent from Rome.<ref>Andrew A.  Chibi, "Richard Sampson, His Oratio, and Henry VIII's Royal Supremacy." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1997 39(3): 543-560. Issn: 0021-969x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>  

To promote the public support for the reformation of the church, Henry had numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared. For example, Richard Sampson's ''Oratio'' (1534) was a legalistic argument for absolute obedience to the temporal power as vested in divine law and Christian love ("obey my commandments"). Sampson cited historical precedents (now known to be spurious) to support his claim that the English church had always been independent from Rome.<ref>Andrew A.  Chibi, "Richard Sampson, His Oratio, and Henry VIII's Royal Supremacy." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1997 39(3): 543-560. Issn: 0021-969x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>  

At the popular level theater and minstrel troupes funded by the crown traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices and ridicule the old. In the polemical plays they presented, the pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils, while the glorious king was hailed as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith.<ref> See Thomas Betteridge, "The Henrician Reformation and Mid-Tudor Culture." ''Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies'' 2005 35(1): 91-109. Issn: 1082-9636 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]].  Original documents are collected by the [http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/index.html Centre for Research in Early English Drama at Victoria University, Toronto]</ref>  

At the popular level theater and minstrel troupes funded by the crown traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices and ridicule the old. In the polemical plays they presented, the pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils, while the glorious king was hailed as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith.<ref>See Thomas Betteridge, "The Henrician Reformation and Mid-Tudor Culture." ''Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies'' 2005 35(1): 91-109. Issn: 1082-9636 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]].  Original documents are collected by the [http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/index.html Centre for Research in Early English Drama at Victoria University, Toronto]</ref>  

Around 1613 [[William Shakespeare]] wrote a favorable play about the king, "The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eighth."  

Around 1613 [[William Shakespeare]] wrote a favorable play about the king, "The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eighth."  

    

    

===Recent popular culture===

===Recent popular culture===

[[File:Henry8-laughton.jpg|thumb|270px]] Henry VIII is the most famous of all English kings, and has been portrayed n many ways. Charles Laughton's Oscar-winning Henry in "The Private Life of Henry VIII" (directed by Alexander Korda 1933) portrayed the macho, totally self-regarding, totally self-absorbed Henry; it created the popular notion that the Tudors had weak table manners. Laughton shows a lustful monarch, a cock among a bevy of sweet chicks, each with eyes on the royal bed; a man who sees women as objects.<ref> See Greg Walker, ''The Private Life of Henry VIII: A British Film Guide'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1860649092 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Private-Life-Henry-VIII/dp/B000085EF9/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1211114013&sr=1-1 DVD]</ref> The same theme appears in the 1994 comedy "Carry On Henry."<ref> see [http://www.amazon.com/Carry-Henry-Sid-James/dp/B000QWGWE0/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1211113897&sr=8-5 DVD]</ref> Television's "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" (1970) was more accurate Keith Michell's performance was deeper than Laughton's, but as the title shows, the focus was once again on Henry the married man.

[[File:Henry8-laughton.jpg|thumb|270px]] Henry VIII is the most famous of all English kings, and has been portrayed n many ways. Charles Laughton's Oscar-winning Henry in "The Private Life of Henry VIII" (directed by Alexander Korda 1933) portrayed the macho, totally self-regarding, totally self-absorbed Henry; it created the popular notion that the Tudors had weak table manners. Laughton shows a lustful monarch, a cock among a bevy of sweet chicks, each with eyes on the royal bed; a man who sees women as objects.<ref>See Greg Walker, ''The Private Life of Henry VIII: A British Film Guide'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1860649092 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Private-Life-Henry-VIII/dp/B000085EF9/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1211114013&sr=1-1 DVD]</ref> The same theme appears in the 1994 comedy "Carry On Henry."<ref>see [http://www.amazon.com/Carry-Henry-Sid-James/dp/B000QWGWE0/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1211113897&sr=8-5 DVD]</ref> Television's "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" (1970) was more accurate Keith Michell's performance was deeper than Laughton's, but as the title shows, the focus was once again on Henry the married man.

A recent UK-Ireland cable TV program co-production, ''The Tudors'', shows an accurate portrayal of Henry VIII's (played by Irish actor [[Jonathan Rhys-Myers]]) reign.

A recent UK-Ireland cable TV program co-production, ''The Tudors'', shows an accurate portrayal of Henry VIII's (played by Irish actor [[Jonathan Rhys-Myers]]) reign.

* Graves, Michael. ''Henry VIII'' (2003) 217pp, topical coverage  

* Graves, Michael. ''Henry VIII'' (2003) 217pp, topical coverage  

* Ives, E. W. "Henry VIII (1491–1547)", in ''The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004), online at [[OUP]], a good starting point

* Ives, E. W. "Henry VIII (1491–1547)", in ''The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004), online at [[OUP]], a good starting point

* Pollard, A.F. ''Henry VIII'' (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable value[http://books.google.com/books?id=q0cDAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:henry+intitle:viii+inauthor:pollard&lr=&as_brr=0 online edition]

* Pollard, A.F. ''Henry VIII'' (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable value [http://books.google.com/books?id=q0cDAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:henry+intitle:viii+inauthor:pollard&lr=&as_brr=0 online edition]

* Rex, Richard.  ''Henry VIII and the English Reformation.'' (1993). 205 pp.   

* Rex, Richard.  ''Henry VIII and the English Reformation.'' (1993). 205 pp.   

* Ridley, Jasper.  ''Henry VIII.'' (1985). 473 pp.  popular biography

* Ridley, Jasper.  ''Henry VIII.'' (1985). 473 pp.  popular biography

[[Category:Renaissance]]

[[Category:Renaissance]]

[[Category:Reformation]]

[[Category:Reformation]]

[[category:Religion and Politics]]

[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry 8}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry 8}}