Changes

===Anne Boleyn===

===Anne Boleyn===

By 1527 Henry had become deeply infatuated with [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed acceptance of the annullment.  

By 1527 Henry had become deeply infatuated with [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed acceptance of the annulment.  

Henry then made the decision to break from the Roman Catholic Church, which he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, and which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir by Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king rather than to the Pope.  Many could not sign—and died.  With Henry now head of the [[Church of England]], his divorce/annullment was granted and he married Anne in 1533. She bacame a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine.  

Henry then made the decision to break from the Roman Catholic Church, which he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, and which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir by Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king rather than to the Pope.  Many could not sign—and died.  With Henry now head of the [[Church of England]], his divorce/annulment was granted and he married Anne in 1533. She bacame a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine.  

Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and it was a son that Henry desired to have.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential of his wives. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref>G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and it was a son that Henry desired to have.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential of his wives. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref>G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536-37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref>G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536-37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref>G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so, the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Critical for the Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected was [[Martin Luther]]'s new interpretation of the fourth commandment and was mediated to an English audience by [[William Tyndale]]. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives emphasized good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God in order to persuade Henry to publish the "Great Bible," an English translation that was a formidable prop for his new-found dignity.<ref>Richard Rex, "The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation." ''Historical Journal'' 1996 39(4): 863-894. Issn: 0018-246x [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639860  in Jstor]</ref>

Critical for the Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected was [[Martin Luther]]'s new interpretation of the fourth commandment and was mediated to an English audience by [[William Tyndale]]. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives emphasized good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God in order to persuade Henry to publish the "Great Bible," an English translation that was a formidable prop for his new-found dignity.<ref>Richard Rex, "The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation." ''Historical Journal'' 1996 39(4): 863-894. Issn: 0018-246x [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639860  in Jstor]</ref>

    

    

===Dissolving the monasteries===

===Dissolving the monasteries===

England was covered with many medieval monastaries that owned large tracts of land worked by tenants.  As a religious institution they were almost defunct and had become handicaps to the economy.  Henry dissolved them (1536-1540) and transfered of a fifth of the England's landed wealth to new hands. The program was designed primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown, which would use the lands much more efficiently.  

England was covered with many medieval monasteries that owned large tracts of land worked by tenants.  As a religious institution they were almost defunct and had become handicaps to the economy.  Henry dissolved them (1536-1540) and transferred of a fifth of the England's landed wealth to new hands. The program was designed primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown, which would use the lands much more efficiently.  

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.  

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.