Changes

==Early career==

==Early career==

Monroe was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Spence Monroe and Eliza Jones Monroe, of Scottish and Welsh ancestry respectively. They were moderately wealthy Virginia tobacco planters who relied on slave labor. Monroe attended a local school and at age 16 matriculated at William and Mary College. Two years later with the outbreak of the [[American Revolution]] he became a lieutenant in a Virginia regiment of the Continental line. Rising to the rank of major, he fought in the New Jersey campaign and led the charge at the [[Battle of Trenton]].  He was hit by a musket ball in his shoulder, striking an artery.  After he recovered, he returned to combat.<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-04-28&view=View</ref>. He was an aide to [[George Washington]] at the "crossing of the Delaware" in December 1776. Monroe served during the operations around Philadelphia and at Monmouth but resigned from the Continental Army in 1778.  

Monroe was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Spence Monroe and Eliza Jones Monroe, of Scottish and Welsh ancestry respectively. They were moderately wealthy Virginia tobacco planters who relied on slave labor. Monroe attended a local school and at age 16 matriculated at William and Mary College. Two years later with the outbreak of the [[American Revolution]] he became a lieutenant in a Virginia regiment of the Continental line. Rising to the rank of major, he fought in the New Jersey campaign and led the charge at the [[Battle of Trenton]].  He was hit by a musket ball in his shoulder, striking an artery.  After he recovered, he returned to combat.<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-04-28&view=View</ref>  He was an aide to [[George Washington]] at the "crossing of the Delaware" in December 1776. Monroe served during the operations around Philadelphia and at Monmouth but resigned from the Continental Army in 1778.  

From 1780 to 1783 Monroe studied law under Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia. This proved the beginning of a lifelong friendship.

From 1780 to 1783 Monroe studied law under Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia. This proved the beginning of a lifelong friendship.

Monroe was a talented diplomat with a fatal flaw that ruined some of his efforts: he never appreciated that he was a representative of the President and the government and had to articulate and advance its objectives. Unlike his Secretary [[John Quincy Adams]] (who drafted the [[Monroe Doctrine]], Monroe never had a broad vision for his own nation.

Monroe was a talented diplomat with a fatal flaw that ruined some of his efforts: he never appreciated that he was a representative of the President and the government and had to articulate and advance its objectives. Unlike his Secretary [[John Quincy Adams]] (who drafted the [[Monroe Doctrine]], Monroe never had a broad vision for his own nation.

As minister to France, he openly sided with the radical factions in the [[French Revolution]], encouraged France to go to war with Britain, and tried to arrange a loan from the U.S. government.  At the same time the Washington Administration was negotiating the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain, which ended the risk of war between the U.S. and Britain, and opened up a decade of highly profitable foreign trade that dramatically improved the American economy.  Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and told the French it would be overturned after the Jeffersonians won the 1796 presidential election. (They lost the election and the treaty stayed in effect).  When his foolish behavior was discovered, he was recalled home.<ref> Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 205</ref>

As minister to France, he openly sided with the radical factions in the [[French Revolution]], encouraged France to go to war with Britain, and tried to arrange a loan from the U.S. government.  At the same time the Washington Administration was negotiating the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain, which ended the risk of war between the U.S. and Britain, and opened up a decade of highly profitable foreign trade that dramatically improved the American economy.  Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and told the French it would be overturned after the Jeffersonians won the 1796 presidential election. (They lost the election and the treaty stayed in effect).  When his foolish behavior was discovered, he was recalled home.<ref>Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 205</ref>

As special envoy to France in 1803 Monroe did an excellent job in negotiating the [[Louisiana Purchase]].  

As special envoy to France in 1803 Monroe did an excellent job in negotiating the [[Louisiana Purchase]].  

But as Jefferson's minister to Britain in 1806 it was Monroe's duty to extend the advantageous Jay Treaty, but he again misread the intentions of his own government.  The treaty he negotiated and signed with offered new advantages to the U.S. but was rejected  by Jefferson, who wanted no treaty and instead turned the U.S. onto a path leading to war with Britain in 1812.<ref> Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 645</ref>

But as Jefferson's minister to Britain in 1806 it was Monroe's duty to extend the advantageous Jay Treaty, but he again misread the intentions of his own government.  The treaty he negotiated and signed with offered new advantages to the U.S. but was rejected  by Jefferson, who wanted no treaty and instead turned the U.S. onto a path leading to war with Britain in 1812.<ref>Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 645</ref>

==War of 1812==

==War of 1812==

[[Image:MONROE-ADMIN.JPG|thumb|left|425px]]

[[Image:MONROE-ADMIN.JPG|thumb|left|425px]]

===End of nasty partisanship===

===End of nasty partisanship===

Monroe deliberately downplayed party politics. With the death of the old Federalist party, old animosities faded away and few new ones emerged. Indeed, the Republican party itself faded away, as Monroe avoided using patronage to strengthen partisanship. To emphasize the coming era of national unity, Monroe followed Washington's example by embarking on a tour of the nation. He visited New England and the Middle Atlantic states in 1817, and the West and South in 1819. His purpose was clearly understood. Fittingly, it was in a Federalist newspaper, as the editor welcomed the approaching end of party warfare, that the phrase "[[Era of Good Feelings]]" was first used. Monroe's arrival became the scene of unprecedented demonstrations--troops of militia, parades, banquets, and delegations of citizens who greeted him enthusiastically not only as president but as a celebrated hero of the Revolution.  

Monroe deliberately downplayed party politics. With the death of the old Federalist party, old animosities faded away and few new ones emerged. Indeed, the Republican party itself faded away, as Monroe avoided using patronage to strengthen partisanship. To emphasize the coming era of national unity, Monroe followed Washington's example by embarking on a tour of the nation. He visited New England and the Middle Atlantic states in 1817, and the West and South in 1819. His purpose was clearly understood. Fittingly, it was in a Federalist newspaper, as the editor welcomed the approaching end of party warfare, that the phrase "[[Era of Good Feelings]]" was first used. Monroe's arrival became the scene of unprecedented demonstrations—troops of militia, parades, banquets, and delegations of citizens who greeted him enthusiastically not only as president but as a celebrated hero of the Revolution.  

===Panic of 1819===

===Panic of 1819===

A sharp financial disaster known as the [[Panic of 1819]] hit the country in 1819; many blamed the distress on the policies of the [[Second Bank of the United States]] (chartered in 1817 with Monroe's support), which was badly managed by [[William Jones]], its first president. Monroe, who considered the bank essential to ensure a sound currency and to control the careless habits of state banks in making loans, succeeded in 1819 in persuading the directors to replace Jones with [[Langdon Cheves]], a former Congressman and a far abler financier. Monroe approved Chief Justice [[John Marshall]]'s decision in [[McCulloch v. Maryland]] (1819), which upheld the constitutionality of the bank.

A sharp financial disaster known as the [[Panic of 1819]] hit the country in 1819; many blamed the distress on the policies of the [[Second Bank of the United States]] (chartered in 1817 with Monroe's support), which was badly managed by [[William Jones]], its first president. Monroe, who considered the bank essential to ensure a sound currency and to control the careless habits of state banks in making loans, succeeded in 1819 in persuading the directors to replace Jones with [[Langdon Cheves]], a former Congressman and a far abler financier. Monroe approved Chief Justice [[John Marshall]]'s decision in [[McCulloch v. Maryland]] (1819), which upheld the constitutionality of the bank.

Despite the economic downturn, Monroe remained popular and was reelected in 1820 almost unanimously.<ref> The only electoral vote cast against him was done so Washington would be the only unanimous choice.</ref>   

Despite the economic downturn, Monroe remained popular and was reelected in 1820 almost unanimously.<ref>The only electoral vote cast against him was done so Washington would be the only unanimous choice.</ref>   

The economy recovered after 1820. Monroe vetoed an appropriation for road repairs in the Cumberland Road Bill (1822), stating that "congress does not possess the power under the constitution to pass such a law."<ref>see [http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy338.html quote]</ref> With Monroe in the White House, the House rejected most spending bills on internal projects.  

The economy recovered after 1820. Monroe vetoed an appropriation for road repairs in the Cumberland Road Bill (1822), stating that "congress does not possess the power under the constitution to pass such a law."<ref>see [http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy338.html quote]</ref> With Monroe in the White House, the House rejected most spending bills on internal projects.  

The relations with Spain over the purchase of Florida proved to be more troublesome, especially after General [[Andrew Jackson]] invaded that territory on what he believed to be the president's authorization, which Monroe later denied giving. But largely through the skillful work of John Quincy Adams, a treaty was signed with Spain in 1819 by which Florida was ceded to the United States in return for the assumption of $5,000,000 in claims and the relinquishment of any claims to Texas.

The relations with Spain over the purchase of Florida proved to be more troublesome, especially after General [[Andrew Jackson]] invaded that territory on what he believed to be the president's authorization, which Monroe later denied giving. But largely through the skillful work of John Quincy Adams, a treaty was signed with Spain in 1819 by which Florida was ceded to the United States in return for the assumption of $5,000,000 in claims and the relinquishment of any claims to Texas.

===Monroe Doctrine===

===Monroe Doctrine===

After the Napoleonic wars (which ended in 1815), almost all of Latin America revolted against Spanish or Portuguese rule and declared independence.<ref> The main exceptions were the West Indies islands especially Cuba and Puerto Rico which remained with Spain until 1898.</ref> Americans welcomed this development as a validation of the the spirit of [[Republicanism]]. Adams suggested delay in formal recognition until Florida was secured in in 1819. The whole problem of imperial invasion was intensified by a Russian claim to the Pacific coast down to the fifty-first parallel and simultaneous European pressure to have all of Latin America returned to its colonial status. In March 1822 Monroe informed Congress that permanent stable governments had been established in the United Provinces of La Plata (present-day Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Adams, under Monroe's careful supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers (ambassadors) to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American  congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. The articulation of an "American system" distinct from that of Europe was a basic tenet of Monroe's policy toward Latin  America. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity."

After the Napoleonic wars (which ended in 1815), almost all of Latin America revolted against Spanish or Portuguese rule and declared independence.<ref>The main exceptions were the West Indies islands especially Cuba and Puerto Rico which remained with Spain until 1898.</ref> Americans welcomed this development as a validation of the the spirit of [[Republicanism]]. Adams suggested delay in formal recognition until Florida was secured in in 1819. The whole problem of imperial invasion was intensified by a Russian claim to the Pacific coast down to the fifty-first parallel and simultaneous European pressure to have all of Latin America returned to its colonial status. In March 1822 Monroe informed Congress that permanent stable governments had been established in the United Provinces of La Plata (present-day Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Adams, under Monroe's careful supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers (ambassadors) to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American  congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. The articulation of an "American system" distinct from that of Europe was a basic tenet of Monroe's policy toward Latin  America. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity."

Monroe and Adams realized that American recognition would not protect the new countries against military intervention to restore Spain's power. In October 1823 Richard Rush, the American minister in London, advised that Foreign Secretary George Canning was proposing that the U.S. and Britain jointly declare their opposition to European intervention.  Galvanized by the British initiative, Monroe consulted with American leaders and then formulated a plan with Adams and incorporated it in his annual message to Congress in December 1823. The principles that have become known as the [[Monroe Doctrine]].  

Monroe and Adams realized that American recognition would not protect the new countries against military intervention to restore Spain's power. In October 1823 Richard Rush, the American minister in London, advised that Foreign Secretary George Canning was proposing that the U.S. and Britain jointly declare their opposition to European intervention.  Galvanized by the British initiative, Monroe consulted with American leaders and then formulated a plan with Adams and incorporated it in his annual message to Congress in December 1823. The principles that have become known as the [[Monroe Doctrine]].  

As president of Virginia's constitutional convention in the fall of 1829, Monroe reiterated his belief that slavery was a blight which, even as a British colony, Virginia had attempted to eradicate. "What was the origin of our slave population?" he rhetorically asked. "The evil commenced when we were in our Colonial state, but acts were passed by our Colonial Legislature, prohibiting the importation, of more slaves, into the Colony. These were rejected by the Crown." To the extreme chagrin of states' rights proponents, he was even willing to accept the federal government's financial assistance in emancipating and deporting the slaves. At the convention, Monroe made his final public statement on slavery, proposing that Virginia emancipate and deport its bondsmen with "the aid of the Union."

As president of Virginia's constitutional convention in the fall of 1829, Monroe reiterated his belief that slavery was a blight which, even as a British colony, Virginia had attempted to eradicate. "What was the origin of our slave population?" he rhetorically asked. "The evil commenced when we were in our Colonial state, but acts were passed by our Colonial Legislature, prohibiting the importation, of more slaves, into the Colony. These were rejected by the Crown." To the extreme chagrin of states' rights proponents, he was even willing to accept the federal government's financial assistance in emancipating and deporting the slaves. At the convention, Monroe made his final public statement on slavery, proposing that Virginia emancipate and deport its bondsmen with "the aid of the Union."

Although he opposed abolition, Monroe was a leading supporter of African colonization proposals as vice president of the Richmond branch of the American Colonization Society, and the capital of [[Liberia]] was named Monrovia after him. He favored gradual, compensated emancipation. In the final analysis, Monroe was a planter and a slave owner who believed  in the eventual peaceful end of slavery.<ref>   Arthur Scherr, "Governor James Monroe and the Southampton Slave Resistance of 1799," Historian; 1999 61(3): 557-578 in [[EBSCO]]; Douglas R. Egerton, ''Gabriel's Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802'' (1993).</ref>  

Although he opposed abolition, Monroe was a leading supporter of African colonization proposals as vice president of the Richmond branch of the American Colonization Society, and the capital of [[Liberia]] was named Monrovia after him. He favored gradual, compensated emancipation. In the final analysis, Monroe was a planter and a slave owner who believed  in the eventual peaceful end of slavery.<ref>Arthur Scherr, "Governor James Monroe and the Southampton Slave Resistance of 1799," Historian; 1999 61(3): 557-578 in [[EBSCO]]; Douglas R. Egerton, ''Gabriel's Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802'' (1993).</ref>  

==Retirement and Legacy==

==Retirement and Legacy==

[[Category:Virginia Governors]]

[[Category:Virginia Governors]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[category:Early National U.S.]]

[[Category:Early National U.S.]]

[[Category:War of 1812]]

[[Category:War of 1812]]