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'''James Monroe''' (1758-1831) was the fifth [[president of the United States of America]] (1817-1825), best known for sponsoring the Monroe Doctrine, and for presiding over a a period of peace and (mostly) prosperity and a lessening of partisan tensions known as the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]."  He was the last of the Virginia Dynasty that controlled the presidency for 32 of the 36 years from 1789 to 1825. He held many political and diplomatic offices, and was a loyal lieutenant to [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], the previous [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republican]] presidents.  

'''James Monroe''' (1758-1831) was the fifth [[president of the United States of America]] (1817-1825), best known for sponsoring the Monroe Doctrine, and for presiding over a period of peace and (mostly) prosperity and a lessening of partisan tensions known as the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]."  He was the last of the Virginia Dynasty that controlled the presidency for 32 of the 36 years from 1789 to 1825. He held many political and diplomatic offices, and was a loyal lieutenant to [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], the previous [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republican]] presidents.  

Some conservatives rate him highly because of his opposition to government spending, but they overlook his radicalism in the 1790s in favor of the most violent phase of the [[French Revolution]].

Some conservatives rate him highly because of his opposition to government spending, but they overlook his radicalism in the 1790s in favor of the most violent phase of the [[French Revolution]].

President Jefferson sent Monroe to France to help Robert R. Livingston, the U.S. minister, negotiate for the purchase of the mouth of the Mississippi River.  They instead purchased the [[Louisiana Purchase|entire Louisiana Territory]] in a spectacular diplomatic triumph. Monroe became minister to the Court of St. James (Britain) but Jefferson rejected the treaty Monroe negotiated because it would not allow the U.S. to engage in commercial warfare against Britain. Monroe went to Spain, which rejected the American offer to purchase the Spanish Floridas. Monroe returned home in 1807, expecting Jefferson's support for the presidency, and insisted upon being a candidate for the Republican nomination even when Jefferson and most party leaders wanted [[James Madison]] to get the nomination. Madison was elected.

President Jefferson sent Monroe to France to help Robert R. Livingston, the U.S. minister, negotiate for the purchase of the mouth of the Mississippi River.  They instead purchased the [[Louisiana Purchase|entire Louisiana Territory]] in a spectacular diplomatic triumph. Monroe became minister to the Court of St. James (Britain) but Jefferson rejected the treaty Monroe negotiated because it would not allow the U.S. to engage in commercial warfare against Britain. Monroe went to Spain, which rejected the American offer to purchase the Spanish Floridas. Monroe returned home in 1807, expecting Jefferson's support for the presidency, and insisted upon being a candidate for the Republican nomination even when Jefferson and most party leaders wanted [[James Madison]] to get the nomination. Madison was elected.

Monroe was a talented diplomat with a fatal flaw that ruined some of his efforts: he never appreciated that he was a representative of the President and the government and had to articulate and advance its objectives. Unlike his Secretary [[John Quincy Adams]] (who drafted the [[Monroe Doctrine]], Monroe never had a broad vision for his own nation.

Monroe was a talented diplomat with a fatal flaw that ruined some of his efforts: he never appreciated that he was a representative of the President and the government and had to articulate and advance its objectives. Unlike his Secretary [[John Quincy Adams]] (who drafted the [[Monroe Doctrine]]), Monroe never had a broad vision for his own nation.

As minister to France, he openly sided with the radical factions in the [[French Revolution]], encouraged France to go to war with Britain, and tried to arrange a loan from the U.S. government.  At the same time the Washington Administration was negotiating the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain, which ended the risk of war between the U.S. and Britain, and opened up a decade of highly profitable foreign trade that dramatically improved the American economy.  Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and told the French it would be overturned after the Jeffersonians won the 1796 presidential election. (They lost the election and the treaty stayed in effect).  When his foolish behavior was discovered, he was recalled home.<ref>Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 205</ref>

As minister to France, he openly sided with the radical factions in the [[French Revolution]], encouraged France to go to war with Britain, and tried to arrange a loan from the U.S. government.  At the same time the Washington Administration was negotiating the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain, which ended the risk of war between the U.S. and Britain, and opened up a decade of highly profitable foreign trade that dramatically improved the American economy.  Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and told the French it would be overturned after the Jeffersonians won the 1796 presidential election. (They lost the election and the treaty stayed in effect).  When his foolish behavior was discovered, he was recalled home.<ref>Gordon Wood, ''Empire of Liberty'' (2009) p. 205</ref>

The relations with Spain over the purchase of Florida proved to be more troublesome, especially after General [[Andrew Jackson]] invaded that territory on what he believed to be the president's authorization, which Monroe later denied giving. But largely through the skillful work of John Quincy Adams, a treaty was signed with Spain in 1819 by which Florida was ceded to the United States in return for the assumption of $5,000,000 in claims and the relinquishment of any claims to Texas.

The relations with Spain over the purchase of Florida proved to be more troublesome, especially after General [[Andrew Jackson]] invaded that territory on what he believed to be the president's authorization, which Monroe later denied giving. But largely through the skillful work of John Quincy Adams, a treaty was signed with Spain in 1819 by which Florida was ceded to the United States in return for the assumption of $5,000,000 in claims and the relinquishment of any claims to Texas.

===Monroe Doctrine===

===Monroe Doctrine===

After the Napoleonic wars (which ended in 1815), almost all of Latin America revolted against Spanish or Portuguese rule and declared independence.<ref>The main exceptions were the West Indies islands especially Cuba and Puerto Rico which remained with Spain until 1898.</ref> Americans welcomed this development as a validation of the the spirit of [[Republicanism]]. Adams suggested delay in formal recognition until Florida was secured in in 1819. The whole problem of imperial invasion was intensified by a Russian claim to the Pacific coast down to the fifty-first parallel and simultaneous European pressure to have all of Latin America returned to its colonial status. In March 1822 Monroe informed Congress that permanent stable governments had been established in the United Provinces of La Plata (present-day Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Adams, under Monroe's careful supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers (ambassadors) to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American  congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. The articulation of an "American system" distinct from that of Europe was a basic tenet of Monroe's policy toward Latin  America. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity."

After the Napoleonic wars (which ended in 1815), almost all of Latin America revolted against Spanish or Portuguese rule and declared independence.<ref>The main exceptions were the West Indies islands especially Cuba and Puerto Rico which remained with Spain until 1898.</ref> Americans welcomed this development as a validation of the spirit of [[Republicanism]]. Adams suggested delay in formal recognition until Florida was secured in in 1819. The whole problem of imperial invasion was intensified by a Russian claim to the Pacific coast down to the fifty-first parallel and simultaneous European pressure to have all of Latin America returned to its colonial status. In March 1822 Monroe informed Congress that permanent stable governments had been established in the United Provinces of La Plata (present-day Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Adams, under Monroe's careful supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers (ambassadors) to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American  congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. The articulation of an "American system" distinct from that of Europe was a basic tenet of Monroe's policy toward Latin  America. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity."

Monroe and Adams realized that American recognition would not protect the new countries against military intervention to restore Spain's power. In October 1823 Richard Rush, the American minister in London, advised that Foreign Secretary George Canning was proposing that the U.S. and Britain jointly declare their opposition to European intervention.  Galvanized by the British initiative, Monroe consulted with American leaders and then formulated a plan with Adams and incorporated it in his annual message to Congress in December 1823. The principles that have become known as the [[Monroe Doctrine]].  

Monroe and Adams realized that American recognition would not protect the new countries against military intervention to restore Spain's power. In October 1823 Richard Rush, the American minister in London, advised that Foreign Secretary George Canning was proposing that the U.S. and Britain jointly declare their opposition to European intervention.  Galvanized by the British initiative, Monroe consulted with American leaders and then formulated a plan with Adams and incorporated it in his annual message to Congress in December 1823. The principles that have become known as the [[Monroe Doctrine]].  

The Monroe Doctrine, which followed up George Washington's admonitions ahgainst foreign entanglements, was the work of British Foreign Minister George Canning and Monroe's Secretary of State [[John Quincy Adams]] more than of Monroe. At the time it pertained more to the Russians in North America than to the former Spanish colonies in South America. The result was a system of American isolationism under the sponsorship of the British navy.  

The Monroe Doctrine, which followed up George Washington's admonitions ahgainst foreign entanglements, was the work of British Foreign Minister George Canning and Monroe's Secretary of State [[John Quincy Adams]] more than of Monroe. At the time it pertained more to the Russians in North America than to the former Spanish colonies in South America. The result was a system of American isolationism under the sponsorship of the British navy.  

The Monroe Doctrine held that the United States considered the Western Hemisphere as no longer a place for European colonization; that any future effort to gain further political control in the hemisphere or to violate the independence of existing states would be treated as an act of hostility; and finally that there existed two different and incompatible political systems in the world. Therefore the United States promised to refrain from intervention in European affairs and demanded Europe to abstain from interfering with American matters. In the event there were few serious European attempts at intervention.

The Monroe Doctrine held that the United States considered the Western Hemisphere as no longer a place for European colonization; that any future effort to gain further political control in the hemisphere or to violate the independence of existing states would be treated as an act of hostility; and finally that there existed two different and incompatible political systems in the world. Therefore, the United States promised to refrain from intervention in European affairs and demanded Europe to abstain from interfering with American matters. In the event there were few serious European attempts at intervention.

By the time [[James Polk]] was elected president in 1844, the Monroe Doctrine was regarded abroad not so much as a shining white sword to debar evil European nations from despoiling South America, but as a handy all-purpose weapon, by means of which the United States could carve out vast tracts of territory for itself in the northern hemisphere. It did not become relevant to South America until the Venezuela-British Guiana dispute of 1895. Its prestige reached its zenith under [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909), who interpreted to it to give the United States police powers. Since that time the good-neighbor policy has gained ground.  

By the time [[James Polk]] was elected president in 1844, the Monroe Doctrine was regarded abroad not so much as a shining white sword to debar evil European nations from despoiling South America, but as a handy all-purpose weapon, by means of which the United States could carve out vast tracts of territory for itself in the northern hemisphere. It did not become relevant to South America until the Venezuela-British Guiana dispute of 1895. Its prestige reached its zenith under [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909), who interpreted to it to give the United States police powers. Since that time the good-neighbor policy has gained ground.  

*  Gilman, Daniel Coit. ''James Monroe'' (1911) 312 pages; old barely adequate biography. [http://books.google.com/books?id=FHksAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:james+intitle:monroe&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

*  Gilman, Daniel Coit. ''James Monroe'' (1911) 312 pages; old barely adequate biography. [http://books.google.com/books?id=FHksAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:james+intitle:monroe&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

* Hart, Gary. ''James Monroe'' (2005) superficial, short, popular biography

* Hart, Gary. ''James Monroe'' (2005) superficial, short, popular biography

* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), Pulitzer Prize; a sweeing conservative interpetation of the entire era

* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), Pulitzer Prize; a sweeing conservative interpretation of the entire era

*  Morgan, George. ''The Life of James Monroe'' (1921) 484 pages; old and barely adequate biography. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hhQOAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:james+intitle:monroe&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

*  Morgan, George. ''The Life of James Monroe'' (1921) 484 pages; old and barely adequate biography. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hhQOAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:james+intitle:monroe&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

* Perkins, Bradford. ''Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812-1823'' (1964)

* Perkins, Bradford. ''Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812-1823'' (1964)