Changes

====Berkeley cell====

====Berkeley cell====

During 1938-42, throughout the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a "discussion group,"<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267</ref> which was later identified by fellow members [[Haakon Chevalier|Chevalier]]<ref>[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress); Barbara Chevalier, "[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_2.html Robert Oppenheimer and Haakon Chevalier: From the Memoirs of Barbara Chevalier]," excerpts (brotherhoodofthebomb.com)</ref> and Gordon Griffiths<ref>Gordon Griffiths, "[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]," excerpts</ref> as a “closed” (secret)<ref>Jessica Mitford, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8KUEAQAAIAAJ A fine old conflict]'' (Knopf, 1977) ISBN 0394499956, p. 67</ref> unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty. If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he was the only member of this group who was not.<ref>S. S. Schweber, “[http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/a-puzzle-of-a-man A Puzzle of a Man],” ''American Scientist'', Vol. 2, No. 5 (September-October 2004)</ref>

During 1938-42, throughout the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a "discussion group,"<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267</ref> which was later identified by fellow members [[Haakon Chevalier|Chevalier]]<ref>[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress); Barbara Chevalier, "[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_2.html Robert Oppenheimer and Haakon Chevalier: From the Memoirs of Barbara Chevalier]," excerpts (brotherhoodofthebomb.com)</ref> and Gordon Griffiths<ref>Gordon Griffiths, "[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]," excerpts</ref> as a “closed” (secret)<ref>Jessica Mitford, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8KUEAQAAIAAJ A fine old conflict]'' (Knopf, 1977) ISBN 0394499956, p. 67</ref> unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty. If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he was the only member of this group who was not.<ref>S. S. Schweber, “[http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/a-puzzle-of-a-man A Puzzle of a Man],” ''American Scientist'', Vol. 2, No. 5 (September–October 2004)</ref>

In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35</ref> Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”<ref>Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brothehood of the Bomb</ref>

In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35</ref> Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”<ref>Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brothehood of the Bomb</ref>

Yet, ten days later, Oppenheimer told the AEC that among GAC members there was “a surprising unanimity&mdash;to me very surprising&mdash;that the United States ought not to take the initiative... in an all out program for the development of thermonuclear weapons.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 77 (PDF 87)</ref> He claimed that didn't know how Seaborg felt about it, as he “was in Sweden, and there was no communication with him.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 233 (PDF 243)</ref> Oppenheimer later confessed that he had received Seaborg's letter before he made these claims, yet he repeated them three months later, before the JCAE.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 239 (PDF 249)</ref>

Yet, ten days later, Oppenheimer told the AEC that among GAC members there was “a surprising unanimity&mdash;to me very surprising&mdash;that the United States ought not to take the initiative... in an all out program for the development of thermonuclear weapons.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 77 (PDF 87)</ref> He claimed that didn't know how Seaborg felt about it, as he “was in Sweden, and there was no communication with him.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 233 (PDF 243)</ref> Oppenheimer later confessed that he had received Seaborg's letter before he made these claims, yet he repeated them three months later, before the JCAE.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 239 (PDF 249)</ref>

When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]<ref>"[http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]" ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003</ref> known as the "father of the H-bomb,"<ref>Francie Grace, "[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95]," CBS News, September 10, 2003</ref> had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that "a super bomb should never be produced."<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401</ref> With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”<ref>Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256</ref> As Teller would later testify:

When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]<ref>"[http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]" ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003</ref> known as the "father of the H-bomb,"<ref>Francie Grace, "[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95]," CBS News, September 10, 2003</ref> had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that "a super bomb should never be produced."<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401</ref> With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”<ref>Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256</ref> As Teller would later testify:

{{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].<ref> Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.</ref>}}

{{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].<ref>Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.</ref>}}

Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.

Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.

Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967 from throat cancer.<ref>[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]</ref>

Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967 from throat cancer.<ref>[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]</ref>

In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson | Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the [[Enrico Fermi]] Award.<ref>[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</ref>

In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the [[Enrico Fermi]] Award.<ref>[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</ref>

In June 1997, the KGB museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of "leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents." The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy [[Klaus Fuchs]], and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. "Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us," former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they "gave us information about the atom bomb," first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because "Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't."<ref>Stephen Goode, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts]," ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6-13, 1997)</ref> "Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs," the museum's director told Chapman. "But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here."<ref>"[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; "[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 28, 1997</ref>

In June 1997, the KGB museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of "leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents." The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy [[Klaus Fuchs]], and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. "Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us," former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they "gave us information about the atom bomb," first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because "Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't."<ref>Stephen Goode, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts]," ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6–13, 1997)</ref> "Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs," the museum's director told Chapman. "But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here."<ref>"[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; "[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 28, 1997</ref>

According to Haynes and Klehr, "Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project."<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330</ref>

According to Haynes and Klehr, "Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project."<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330</ref>

==See Also==

==See also==

* [[Manhattan Project]]

* [[Manhattan Project]]

* [[Albert Einstein]]

* [[Albert Einstein]]

*<cite id=refHB2000>Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery, 2000) ISBN 0895262754</cite>

*<cite id=refHB2000>Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery, 2000) ISBN 0895262754</cite>

==See Also==

==See also==

* [[Manhattan Project]]

* [[Manhattan Project]]

* [[Albert Einstein]]

* [[Albert Einstein]]

* [[Leo Szilard]]

* [[Leo Szilard]]

==External link==

==External links==

*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&sort=Collection&item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.

*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&sort=Collection&item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.