Changes

The Kalmar Union's final disintegration in the early 16th century brought on a long-lived rivalry between Norway and Denmark on one side and Sweden and Finland on the other. The Catholic bishops had supported Danish King Christian II, but he was overthrown by [[Gustavus Vasa]] (1490-1560) and Sweden (with Finland) was now independent again. Gustavus used the [[Protestant Reformation]] to curb the power of the church and became King Gustavus I in 1523. In 1527 he persuaded the Riksdag of Västerås, (comprising the nobles, clergy, burghers, and freehold peasants), to confiscate the church lands, which comprised 21% of the farmland. Gustavus patronized the Lutheran reformers and appointed his men as bishops. Gustavus suppressed aristocratic opposition to his ecclesiastical policies and centralization efforts.

The Kalmar Union's final disintegration in the early 16th century brought on a long-lived rivalry between Norway and Denmark on one side and Sweden and Finland on the other. The Catholic bishops had supported Danish King Christian II, but he was overthrown by [[Gustavus Vasa]] (1490-1560) and Sweden (with Finland) was now independent again. Gustavus used the [[Protestant Reformation]] to curb the power of the church and became King Gustavus I in 1523. In 1527 he persuaded the Riksdag of Västerås, (comprising the nobles, clergy, burghers, and freehold peasants), to confiscate the church lands, which comprised 21% of the farmland. Gustavus patronized the Lutheran reformers and appointed his men as bishops. Gustavus suppressed aristocratic opposition to his ecclesiastical policies and centralization efforts.

Tax reform took place in 1538 and 1558, whereby multiple complex taxes on independent farmers were simplified and standardized throughout the district; tax assessments per farm were adjusted to reflect ability to pay. Crown tax revenues increased but more important the new system was much fairer and more acceptable.  A war with Luebeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders, who previously had a monopoly of foreign trade.  With its own businessmen in charge, Sweden's economic strength grew rapidly and by 1544 Gustavus controlled 60% of the farmlands in all of Sweden. Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and government bureaucracy.  Gustavus proclaimed the Swedish crown hereditary in his family, the house of Vasa.  It ruled Sweden (1523-1654) and Poland (1587-1668).<ref> Michael Roberts, ''The Early Vasas:  A History of Sweden 1523-1611'' (1968); Jan Glete, ''War and the State in Early Modern Europe: Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Sweden as Fiscal-Military States, 1500-1660'' (2002) [http://books.google.com/books?id=hI5agv3IDGIC&dq=questia+Glete,+''War+and+the+State&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=OkIWbv60os&sig=F66lMnhInY-bydmQNc1V_mtSJeM&hl=en&ei=DAUCSv7tCJOCtgOFso3xBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 online edition]</ref>

Tax reform took place in 1538 and 1558, whereby multiple complex taxes on independent farmers were simplified and standardized throughout the district; tax assessments per farm were adjusted to reflect ability to pay. Crown tax revenues increased but more important the new system was much fairer and more acceptable.  A war with Luebeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders, who previously had a monopoly of foreign trade.  With its own businessmen in charge, Sweden's economic strength grew rapidly and by 1544 Gustavus controlled 60% of the farmlands in all of Sweden. Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and government bureaucracy.  Gustavus proclaimed the Swedish crown hereditary in his family, the house of Vasa.  It ruled Sweden (1523-1654) and Poland (1587-1668).<ref>Michael Roberts, ''The Early Vasas:  A History of Sweden 1523-1611'' (1968); Jan Glete, ''War and the State in Early Modern Europe: Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Sweden as Fiscal-Military States, 1500-1660'' (2002) [http://books.google.com/books?id=hI5agv3IDGIC&dq=questia+Glete,+''War+and+the+State&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=OkIWbv60os&sig=F66lMnhInY-bydmQNc1V_mtSJeM&hl=en&ei=DAUCSv7tCJOCtgOFso3xBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 online edition]</ref>

==Early Modern==

==Early Modern==

Russia, Saxony-Poland, and Denmark-Norway pooled their power in 1700 and attacked the Swedish-Finnish empire. Although the young Swedish King [[Charles XII]] (1682-1718; reigned 1697-1718) won spectacular victories in the early years of the [[Great Northern War]], most notably in the stunning success against the Russians at the Battle of Narva (1700), his plan to attack Moscow and force Russia into peace proved too ambitious.  

Russia, Saxony-Poland, and Denmark-Norway pooled their power in 1700 and attacked the Swedish-Finnish empire. Although the young Swedish King [[Charles XII]] (1682-1718; reigned 1697-1718) won spectacular victories in the early years of the [[Great Northern War]], most notably in the stunning success against the Russians at the Battle of Narva (1700), his plan to attack Moscow and force Russia into peace proved too ambitious.  

The Russians won decisively at Poltava in June 1709, capturing much of the exhausted Swedish army. Charles XII and the remnants of his army were cut off from Sweden and fled south into Ottoman territory, where he remained three years.  He outstayed his welcome, refusing to leave until the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined him in a new war against Tsar [[Peter I]] of Russia. In order to force the recalcitrant Ottoman government to follow his policies, he established, from his camp, a powerful political network in Constantinople, which was joined even by the mother of the sultan. Charles's persistence worked, as Peter's army was checked by Ottoman troops. However, Turkish failure to pursue the victory enraged Charles and from that moment his relations with the Ottoman administration soured. During the same period the behavior of his troops worsened and turned disastrous. Lack of discipline and contempt for the locals soon created an unbearable situation in Moldavia. The Swedish soldiers behaved badly, destroying, stealing, raping, and killing. Meanwhile back in the north Sweden was invaded and defeated by its enemies; Charles returned home in 1714, too late to restore his lost empire and impoverished homeland; he died in 1718.<ref>He was shot through the head during a siege, but whether by assassination at close range or by stray enemy fire at long range is mysteriously unclear.  Andersson, ''A History of Sweden'' p 247</ref>In the subsequent peace treaties, the allied powers, joined by Prussia and England-Hanover, ended Sweden's reign as a great power. Russian now dominated the north.  The war-weary Riksdag asserted new powers and reduced the crown to a constitutional monarch, with power held by a civilian government controlled by the Riksdag. A new "Age of Freedom" opened, and the economy was rebuilt, supported by large exports of iron and lumber to Britain.<ref>Absolute monarchy returned briefly at the end of the 18th century.</ref>  

The Russians won decisively at Poltava in June 1709, capturing much of the exhausted Swedish army. Charles XII and the remnants of his army were cut off from Sweden and fled south into Ottoman territory, where he remained three years.  He outstayed his welcome, refusing to leave until the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined him in a new war against Tsar [[Peter I]] of Russia. In order to force the recalcitrant Ottoman government to follow his policies, he established, from his camp, a powerful political network in Constantinople, which was joined even by the mother of the sultan. Charles's persistence worked, as Peter's army was checked by Ottoman troops. However, Turkish failure to pursue the victory enraged Charles and from that moment his relations with the Ottoman administration soured. During the same period the behavior of his troops worsened and turned disastrous. Lack of discipline and contempt for the locals soon created an unbearable situation in Moldavia. The Swedish soldiers behaved badly, destroying, stealing, raping, and killing. Meanwhile back in the north Sweden was invaded and defeated by its enemies; Charles returned home in 1714, too late to restore his lost empire and impoverished homeland; he died in 1718.<ref>He was shot through the head during a siege, but whether by assassination at close range or by stray enemy fire at long range is mysteriously unclear.  Andersson, ''A History of Sweden'' p 247</ref> In the subsequent peace treaties, the allied powers, joined by Prussia and England-Hanover, ended Sweden's reign as a great power. Russian now dominated the north.  The war-weary Riksdag asserted new powers and reduced the crown to a constitutional monarch, with power held by a civilian government controlled by the Riksdag. A new "Age of Freedom" opened, and the economy was rebuilt, supported by large exports of iron and lumber to Britain.<ref>Absolute monarchy returned briefly at the end of the 18th century.</ref>  

[[File:Charles-xii.jpg|thumb|300px|Charles XII (Carl XII) is a popular hero in Sweden, as suggested by this poster for a 1925 film]]

[[File:Charles-xii.jpg|thumb|300px|Charles XII (Carl XII) is a popular hero in Sweden, as suggested by this poster for a 1925 film]]

The reign of Charles XII (1697-1718) has stirred great controversy; historians have been puzzled ever since why this military genius overreached and greatly weakened Sweden. Although most early-19th-century historians tended to follow [[Voltaire]]'s lead in bestowing extravagant praise on the warrior-king, others have criticized him as a fanatic, a bully, and a bloodthirsty warmonger. A more balanced view suggests a highly capable military ruler whose oft-reviled peculiarities seemed to have served him well, but who neglected his base in Sweden in pursuit of foreign adventure.<ref> R. M. Hatton, ''Charles XII of Sweden'' (1968)</ref> Slow to learn the limits of Sweden's diminished strength, a party of nobles, who called themselves the "Hats", dreamed of revenge on Russia and ruled the country from 1739 to 1765; they engaged in wars in 1741, 1757, 1788, and 1809, with more or less disastrous results as Russian influence grew after every Swedish defeat.  

The reign of Charles XII (1697-1718) has stirred great controversy; historians have been puzzled ever since why this military genius overreached and greatly weakened Sweden. Although most early-19th-century historians tended to follow [[Voltaire]]'s lead in bestowing extravagant praise on the warrior-king, others have criticized him as a fanatic, a bully, and a bloodthirsty warmonger. A more balanced view suggests a highly capable military ruler whose oft-reviled peculiarities seemed to have served him well, but who neglected his base in Sweden in pursuit of foreign adventure.<ref>R. M. Hatton, ''Charles XII of Sweden'' (1968)</ref> Slow to learn the limits of Sweden's diminished strength, a party of nobles, who called themselves the "Hats", dreamed of revenge on Russia and ruled the country from 1739 to 1765; they engaged in wars in 1741, 1757, 1788, and 1809, with more or less disastrous results as Russian influence grew after every Swedish defeat.  

===Enlightenment===

===Enlightenment===

Sweden shared in the [[Enlightenment]] culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science and learning. A new law in 1766 established for the first time the principle of freedom of the press -- a notable step towards liberty of political opinion. The Academy of Science was founded in 1739 and the Academy of Letters, History, and Antiquities in 1753. The outstanding cultural leader was [[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707-78), whose work in biology and ethnography had a major impact on European science.

Sweden shared in the [[Enlightenment]] culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science and learning. A new law in 1766 established for the first time the principle of freedom of the press—a notable step towards liberty of political opinion. The Academy of Science was founded in 1739 and the Academy of Letters, History, and Antiquities in 1753. The outstanding cultural leader was [[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707–78), whose work in biology and ethnography had a major impact on European science.

King Gustav III (1746-1792) came to the throne in 1171, and in 1772 led a coup d'etat, with French support, that established him as an "enlightened despot," who ruled at will. The Agre of  Freedom and bitter party politics was over.  Precocious and well educated, he became a patron of the arts and music.  His edicts reformed the bureaucracy, repaired the currency, expanded trade, and improved defense. The population had reached 2.0 million and the country was prosperous, although rampant alcoholism was a growing social problem. But when Gustav made war on Russia and did poorly he was assassinated by a conspiracy of nobles angry that he tried to restrict their privileges for the benefit of the peasant farmers.   

King Gustav III (1746-1792) came to the throne in 1171, and in 1772 led a coup d'etat, with French support, that established him as an "enlightened despot," who ruled at will. The Agre of  Freedom and bitter party politics was over.  Precocious and well educated, he became a patron of the arts and music.  His edicts reformed the bureaucracy, repaired the currency, expanded trade, and improved defense. The population had reached 2.0 million and the country was prosperous, although rampant alcoholism was a growing social problem. But when Gustav made war on Russia and did poorly he was assassinated by a conspiracy of nobles angry that he tried to restrict their privileges for the benefit of the peasant farmers.   

===Urbanization===

===Urbanization===

Between 1570 and 1800 Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion, ca. 1580-1690 and in the mid-18th century, separated by relative stagnation from the 1690s to about 1720. The initial phase was the more active, including an increase in the percentage of urban dwellers in Stockholm - a pattern comparable to increasing urban populations in other European capital and port cities - as well as the foundation of a number of small new towns. Increasing populations in the small towns of the north and west characterized the second period of urban growth, which began around 1750 in response to shifts in Swedish trade patterns from the Baltic to the North Atlantic.<ref> Sven Lilja, "Swedish Urbanization c. 1570-1800: Chronology, Structure and Causes," ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1994 19 (4): 277-308. </ref>

Between 1570 and 1800 Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion, ca. 1580-1690 and in the mid-18th century, separated by relative stagnation from the 1690s to about 1720. The initial phase was the more active, including an increase in the percentage of urban dwellers in Stockholm - a pattern comparable to increasing urban populations in other European capital and port cities - as well as the foundation of a number of small new towns. Increasing populations in the small towns of the north and west characterized the second period of urban growth, which began around 1750 in response to shifts in Swedish trade patterns from the Baltic to the North Atlantic.<ref>Sven Lilja, "Swedish Urbanization c. 1570-1800: Chronology, Structure and Causes," ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1994 19 (4): 277-308.</ref>

==19th century==

==19th century==

Sweden's predominantly agricultural economy shifted gradually from village to private farm-based agriculture during the [[Industrial Revolution]], but this change failed to bring economic and social improvements commensurate with the rate of population growth. About 1 million Swedes immigrated to the United States between 1850 and 1890.  

Sweden's predominantly agricultural economy shifted gradually from village to private farm-based agriculture during the [[Industrial Revolution]], but this change failed to bring economic and social improvements commensurate with the rate of population growth. About 1 million Swedes immigrated to the United States between 1850 and 1890.  

===Colonies===

===Colonies===

Sweden experimented briefly with overseas colonies, including "New Sweden" in [[Colonial America]] in the 1640s. Sweden purchased the small Caribbean island of Saint Barthélemy from France in 1784, then sold it back in 1878; the population included slaves until they were freed by the Swedish government in 1847.<ref> Francine M. Mayer, and Carolyn E. Fick, "Before and After Emancipation: Slaves and Free Coloreds of Saint-Barthelemy (French West Indies) in The 19th Century." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1993 18 (4): 251-273. </ref>   

Sweden experimented briefly with overseas colonies, including "New Sweden" in [[Colonial America]] in the 1640s. Sweden purchased the small Caribbean island of Saint Barthélemy from France in 1784, then sold it back in 1878; the population included slaves until they were freed by the Swedish government in 1847.<ref>Francine M. Mayer, and Carolyn E. Fick, "Before and After Emancipation: Slaves and Free Coloreds of Saint-Barthelemy (French West Indies) in The 19th Century." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1993 18 (4): 251-273.</ref>   

Sweden's king became king of [[Norway]] in 1814, but Norway was largely independent of Sweden.  The king's rule was not well received and when Sweden refused to allow Norway to have its own diplomats, Norway rejected the King of Sweden in 1905 and selected its own king.

Sweden's king became king of [[Norway]] in 1814, but Norway was largely independent of Sweden.  The king's rule was not well received and when Sweden refused to allow Norway to have its own diplomats, Norway rejected the King of Sweden in 1905 and selected its own king.

===Liberal reform===

===Liberal reform===

The 19th century was marked by the emergence of a liberal opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies in trade and manufacturing in favor of free enterprise, the introduction of taxation and voting reforms, the installation of a national military service, and the rise in the electorate of three major party groups--Social Democratic Party, Liberal Party, and Conservative Party.  

The 19th century was marked by the emergence of a liberal opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies in trade and manufacturing in favor of free enterprise, the introduction of taxation and voting reforms, the installation of a national military service, and the rise in the electorate of three major party groups—Social Democratic Party, Liberal Party, and Conservative Party.  

===Health===

===Health===

The steady decline of death rates in Sweden began about 1810. For men and women of working age the death rate trend diverged, however, leading to increased excess male mortality during the first half of the century.  There were very high rates of infant and child mortality before 1800, Among infants and children between the ages of one and four smallpox peaked as a cause of death in the 1770s-1780s and declined afterward. Mortality also peaked during this period due to other air-, food-, and waterborne diseases, but these declined as well during the early 19th century. The decline of several diseases during this time created a more favorable environment that increased children's resistance to disease and dramatically lowered child mortality.<ref> Jan Sundin, "Child Mortality and Causes of Death in a Swedish City, 1750-1860." ''Historical Methods'' 1996 29(3): 93-106. </ref>  

The steady decline of death rates in Sweden began about 1810. For men and women of working age the death rate trend diverged, however, leading to increased excess male mortality during the first half of the century.  There were very high rates of infant and child mortality before 1800, Among infants and children between the ages of one and four smallpox peaked as a cause of death in the 1770s-1780s and declined afterward. Mortality also peaked during this period due to other air-, food-, and waterborne diseases, but these declined as well during the early 19th century. The decline of several diseases during this time created a more favorable environment that increased children's resistance to disease and dramatically lowered child mortality.<ref>Jan Sundin, "Child Mortality and Causes of Death in a Swedish City, 1750-1860." ''Historical Methods'' 1996 29(3): 93-106.</ref>  

The introduction of compulsory gymnastics in Swedish schools in 1880 rested partly on a long tradition, from Renaissance humanism to the Enlightenment, of the importance of physical as well as intellectual training. More immediately, the promotion of gymnastics as a scientifically sound form of physical discipline coincided with the introduction of conscription, which gave the state a strong interest in educating children physically as well as mentally for the role of citizen soldiers.<ref> Jens Ljunggren, "Nation-Building, Primitivism and Manliness: The Issue of Gymnastics in Sweden around 1880". ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1996 21 (2): 101-120. </Ref> Skiing is a major recreation in Sweden and its ideological, functional, ecological, and social impact has been great on Swedish nationalism and consciousness. Swedes perceived skiing as virtuous, masculine, heroic, in harmony with nature, and part of the country's culture. A growing awareness of strong national sentiments and an appreciation of natural resources led to the creation of the Swedish Ski Association in 1892 in order to combine nature, leisure, and nationalism. The organization focused its efforts on patriotic, militaristic, heroic, and environmental Swedish traditions as they relate to ski sports and outdoor life.<ref> Sverker Sörlin, "Nature, Skiing and Swedish Nationalism." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 1995 12(2): 147-163.</ref>

The introduction of compulsory gymnastics in Swedish schools in 1880 rested partly on a long tradition, from Renaissance humanism to the Enlightenment, of the importance of physical as well as intellectual training. More immediately, the promotion of gymnastics as a scientifically sound form of physical discipline coincided with the introduction of conscription, which gave the state a strong interest in educating children physically as well as mentally for the role of citizen soldiers.<ref>Jens Ljunggren, "Nation-Building, Primitivism and Manliness: The Issue of Gymnastics in Sweden around 1880". ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1996 21 (2): 101-120.</ref> Skiing is a major recreation in Sweden and its ideological, functional, ecological, and social impact has been great on Swedish nationalism and consciousness. Swedes perceived skiing as virtuous, masculine, heroic, in harmony with nature, and part of the country's culture. A growing awareness of strong national sentiments and an appreciation of natural resources led to the creation of the Swedish Ski Association in 1892 in order to combine nature, leisure, and nationalism. The organization focused its efforts on patriotic, militaristic, heroic, and environmental Swedish traditions as they relate to ski sports and outdoor life.<ref>Sverker Sörlin, "Nature, Skiing and Swedish Nationalism." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 1995 12(2): 147-163.</ref>

==20th century==

==20th century==

===Welfare State===

===Welfare State===

Swedish integration of socialism and democracy was successful because of the unique way in which Sweden's labor leaders, politicians, and classes cooperated during the early development period of Swedish social democracy. Because Sweden's socialist leaders chose a moderate, reformist political course with broad-based public support in the early stages of Swedish industrialization and prior to the full-blown development of Swedish interclass politics, Sweden escaped the severe extremist challenges and political and class divisions that plagued many European countries that attempted to develop social democratic systems after 1911. By dealing early, cooperatively, and effectively with the challenges of industrialization and its impact on Swedish social, political, and economic structures, Swedish social democrats were able to create one of the most successful social democratic systems in the world, with no signs of repression or totalitarianism.<ref> Jae-Hung Ahn, "Ideology and Interest: The Case of Swedish Social Democracy, 1886-1911." ''Politics & Society'' 1996 24(2): 153-187. </ref>  

Swedish integration of socialism and democracy was successful because of the unique way in which Sweden's labor leaders, politicians, and classes cooperated during the early development period of Swedish social democracy. Because Sweden's socialist leaders chose a moderate, reformist political course with broad-based public support in the early stages of Swedish industrialization and prior to the full-blown development of Swedish interclass politics, Sweden escaped the severe extremist challenges and political and class divisions that plagued many European countries that attempted to develop social democratic systems after 1911. By dealing early, cooperatively, and effectively with the challenges of industrialization and its impact on Swedish social, political, and economic structures, Swedish social democrats were able to create one of the most successful social democratic systems in the world, with no signs of repression or totalitarianism.<ref>Jae-Hung Ahn, "Ideology and Interest: The Case of Swedish Social Democracy, 1886-1911." ''Politics & Society'' 1996 24(2): 153-187.</ref>  

When the Social Democratic Party came into power in 1932, its leaders introduced a new political decision-making process, which later became known as "the Swedish model." The party took a central role, but tried as far as possible to base its policy on mutual understanding and compromise. Different interest groups were always involved in official committees that preceded government decisions.  

When the Social Democratic Party came into power in 1932, its leaders introduced a new political decision-making process, which later became known as "the Swedish model." The party took a central role, but tried as far as possible to base its policy on mutual understanding and compromise. Different interest groups were always involved in official committees that preceded government decisions.