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Another 40,000 went to Hawaii, an independent country that joined the U.S. in 1898. The exclusion now applied to Hawaii but it was not retroactive. In 1900 there were 26,000 Chinese residing in Hawaii and they had full U.S. citizenship. They were welcomed into Hawaiian society, assimilated rapidly, led all ethnic groups in school attendance; 32% lived in Honolulu, where many became businessmen, entrepreneurs, managers, teachers and professionals. Others were farmers, but their children usually moved to the city. Chinese were allowed to own land in Hawaii (unlike the mainland) and (unlike the mainland) often married outside the ethnic group, especially Chinese immigrant men and native Hawaiian women.<ref>Doremus Scudder, ''Chinese citizenship in Hawaii'' (1905) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4433933?n=6&imagesize=1200&jp2Res=.25 page 6 online]; Stephan Thernstrom, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) [http://books.google.com/books?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=Hawaiian+chinese+1900&source=web&ots=wdoSye6xsj&sig=rBDc8l2dPzhkXS_El_cupdCxtHU&hl=en pp 231-33 online]</ref>
Another 40,000 went to Hawaii, an independent country that joined the U.S. in 1898. The exclusion now applied to Hawaii but it was not retroactive. In 1900 there were 26,000 Chinese residing in Hawaii and they had full U.S. citizenship. They were welcomed into Hawaiian society, assimilated rapidly, led all ethnic groups in school attendance; 32% lived in Honolulu, where many became businessmen, entrepreneurs, managers, teachers and professionals. Others were farmers, but their children usually moved to the city. Chinese were allowed to own land in Hawaii (unlike the mainland) and (unlike the mainland) often married outside the ethnic group, especially Chinese immigrant men and native Hawaiian women.<ref>Doremus Scudder, ''Chinese citizenship in Hawaii'' (1905) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4433933?n=6&imagesize=1200&jp2Res=.25 page 6 online]; Stephan Thernstrom, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) [http://books.google.com/books?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=Hawaiian+chinese+1900&source=web&ots=wdoSye6xsj&sig=rBDc8l2dPzhkXS_El_cupdCxtHU&hl=en pp 231-33 online]</ref>
===West===
===West===
The [[Burlingame Treaty]] of 1868 between the U.S. and China facilitated the immigration of tens of thousands of Chinese men; very few women came. But the completion of the transcontinental railways brought more white laborers to the West, and they strenuously complained of "Oriental" competition, involving "coolies" trapped into indentured labor (a form of semi-slavery),<ref>Coolies existed but they did not go to America. About 125,000 Chinese laborers went to Cuba between 1847 and 1874 to work under conditions approximating slavery. See Moon-ho Jung, "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701.</ref> unskilled workers paid very low wages and a population impossible to assimilate into American society or political culture. Other complaints centered on the tongs that controlled every aspect of Chinese life in America,, and the opium dens.
The [[Burlingame Treaty]] of 1868 between the U.S. and China facilitated the immigration of tens of thousands of Chinese men; very few women came. But the completion of the transcontinental railways brought more white laborers to the West, and they strenuously complained of "Oriental" competition, involving "coolies" trapped into indentured labor (a form of semi-slavery),<ref>Coolies existed but they did not go to America. About 125,000 Chinese laborers went to Cuba between 1847 and 1874 to work under conditions approximating slavery. See Moon-ho Jung, "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701.</ref> unskilled workers paid very low wages and a population impossible to assimilate into American society or political culture. Other complaints centered on the tongs that controlled every aspect of Chinese life in America, and the opium dens.
In 1877, when 9% of California's state's population was Chinese, the violent agitation for exclusion was led by [[Denis Kearney]], Irish-born leader of the Workingmen's party. Violence throughout the west in the 1870s forced the Chinese into a small number of cities, where they formed exclusive districts called Chinatowns, that were virtually self-governing. Since very few women were involved, the immigrant population—which had arrived as young men in the 1860s—gradually aged and died out.
In 1877, when 9% of California's state's population was Chinese, the violent agitation for exclusion was led by [[Denis Kearney]], Irish-born leader of the Workingmen's party. Violence throughout the west in the 1870s forced the Chinese into a small number of cities, where they formed exclusive districts called Chinatowns, that were virtually self-governing. Since very few women were involved, the immigrant population—which had arrived as young men in the 1860s—gradually aged and died out.
* Salyer, Lucy. ''Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law'' (1995). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/laws-harsh-as-tigers-chinese-immigrants-and-the-shaping-of-modern-immigration-law-by-lucy-e-salyer.jsp online edition]
* Salyer, Lucy. ''Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law'' (1995). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/laws-harsh-as-tigers-chinese-immigrants-and-the-shaping-of-modern-immigration-law-by-lucy-e-salyer.jsp online edition]
* Saxton, Alexander. ''The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California'' (1971)
* Saxton, Alexander. ''The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California'' (1971)
* Tong, Benson. ''The Chinese Americans.'' (2000) , 248pp [http://www.questia.com/read/27268692?title=The%20Chinese%20Americans online edition]
* Tong, Benson. ''The Chinese Americans.'' (2000), 248pp [http://www.questia.com/read/27268692?title=The%20Chinese%20Americans online edition]
===Primary sources===
===Primary sources===
* [http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/themes-exclusion.html books and government documents, pre 1920s, both pro and anti-restriction]
* [http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/themes-exclusion.html books and government documents, pre 1920s, both pro and anti-restriction]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=yI8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=exempting+teachers,+students,+merchants,+&source=web&ots=gdnaKeID9Z&sig=hEj_jpU3H0Mpsn-qoW6vJLaD-R0&hl=en#PPA185,M1 ''Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia: 1902'' (1903) pp 185-189] summary of debates in Congress in 1902
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=yI8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=exempting+teachers,+students,+merchants,+&source=web&ots=gdnaKeID9Z&sig=hEj_jpU3H0Mpsn-qoW6vJLaD-R0&hl=en#PPA185,M1 ''Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia: 1902'' (1903) pp 185-189] summary of debates in Congress in 1902
* Yung, Judy, et al ads. ''Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinese-American-Voices-Gold-Present/dp/0520243102/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212931634&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Yung, Judy, et al. ads. ''Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinese-American-Voices-Gold-Present/dp/0520243102/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212931634&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award99/cubhtml/cichome.html "The Chinese in California: 1850-1925"] 8,000 pages of photos and primary source
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award99/cubhtml/cichome.html "The Chinese in California: 1850-1925"] 8,000 pages of photos and primary source
====notes====
====notes====