Changes

Fewer than 50 Chinese immigrated to the U.S. before 1850. With the discovery of gold in 1849 tens of thousands of people raced to California. The Chinese first came as miners, then as railroad workers constructing the transcontinental line, which was finished in 1869. Before restrictions began in 1883, 290,000 Chinese—almost all men—entered the U.S., usually through San Francisco. The goal was to acquire money and return home, and 147,000 left before 1883. The exclusion only applied to unskilled workers. Merchants, students and "paper sons" continued to arrive officially, and totaled 57,000 from 1884 to 1916. Anothr 17,000 or so were smuggled in.<ref>See Sidney Lewis Gulick, ''American democracy and Asiatic citizenship'' (1918) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4273916?n=153&s=4 p. 153 online]</ref>  

Fewer than 50 Chinese immigrated to the U.S. before 1850. With the discovery of gold in 1849 tens of thousands of people raced to California. The Chinese first came as miners, then as railroad workers constructing the transcontinental line, which was finished in 1869. Before restrictions began in 1883, 290,000 Chinese—almost all men—entered the U.S., usually through San Francisco. The goal was to acquire money and return home, and 147,000 left before 1883. The exclusion only applied to unskilled workers. Merchants, students and "paper sons" continued to arrive officially, and totaled 57,000 from 1884 to 1916. Anothr 17,000 or so were smuggled in.<ref>See Sidney Lewis Gulick, ''American democracy and Asiatic citizenship'' (1918) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4273916?n=153&s=4 p. 153 online]</ref>  

===Hawaii===

===Hawaii===

Another 40,000 went to Hawaii, an independent country that joined the U.S. in 1898. The exclusion now applied to Hawaii but it was not retroactive. In 1900 there were 26,000 Chinese residing in Hawaii and they had full U.S. citizenship. They were welcomed into Hawaiian society, assimilated rapidly, led all ethnic groups in school attendance; 32% lived in Honolulu, where many became businessmen, entrepreneurs, managers, teachers and professionals. Others were farmers, but their children usually moved to the city. Chinese were allowed to own land in Hawaii (unlike the mainland) and (unlike the mainland) often married outside the ethnic group, especially Chinese immigrant men and native Hawaiian women.<ref>Doremus Scudder, ''Chinese citizenship in Hawaii'' (1905) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4433933?n=6&imagesize=1200&jp2Res=.25 page 6 online]; Stephan Thernstrom, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) [http://books.google.com/books?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=Hawaiian+chinese+1900&source=web&ots=wdoSye6xsj&sig=rBDc8l2dPzhkXS_El_cupdCxtHU&hl=en pp 231-33 online]</ref>

Another 40,000 went to Hawaii, an independent country that joined the U.S. in 1898. The exclusion now applied to Hawaii but it was not retroactive. In 1900 there were 26,000 Chinese residing in Hawaii and they had full U.S. citizenship. They were welcomed into Hawaiian society, assimilated rapidly, led all ethnic groups in school attendance; 32% lived in Honolulu, where many became businessmen, entrepreneurs, managers, teachers and professionals. Others were farmers, but their children usually moved to the city. Chinese were allowed to own land in Hawaii (unlike the mainland) and (unlike the mainland) often married outside the ethnic group, especially Chinese immigrant men and native Hawaiian women.<ref>Doremus Scudder, ''Chinese citizenship in Hawaii'' (1905) [http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/4433933?n=6&imagesize=1200&jp2Res=.25 page 6 online]; Stephan Thernstrom, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) [https://books.google.com/books?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=Hawaiian+chinese+1900&source=web&ots=wdoSye6xsj&sig=rBDc8l2dPzhkXS_El_cupdCxtHU&hl=en pp 231-33 online]</ref>

===West===

===West===

The [[Burlingame Treaty]] of 1868 between the U.S. and China facilitated the immigration of tens of thousands of Chinese men; very few women came. But the completion of the transcontinental railways brought more white laborers to the West, and they strenuously complained of "Oriental" competition, involving "coolies" trapped into indentured labor (a form of semi-slavery),<ref>Coolies existed but they did not go to America. About 125,000 Chinese laborers went to Cuba between 1847 and 1874 to work under conditions approximating slavery. See Moon-ho Jung,  "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701.</ref> unskilled workers paid very low wages and a population impossible to assimilate into American society or political culture.  Other complaints centered on the tongs that controlled every aspect of Chinese life in America, and the opium dens.  

The [[Burlingame Treaty]] of 1868 between the U.S. and China facilitated the immigration of tens of thousands of Chinese men; very few women came. But the completion of the transcontinental railways brought more white laborers to the West, and they strenuously complained of "Oriental" competition, involving "coolies" trapped into indentured labor (a form of semi-slavery),<ref>Coolies existed but they did not go to America. About 125,000 Chinese laborers went to Cuba between 1847 and 1874 to work under conditions approximating slavery. See Moon-ho Jung,  "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701.</ref> unskilled workers paid very low wages and a population impossible to assimilate into American society or political culture.  Other complaints centered on the tongs that controlled every aspect of Chinese life in America, and the opium dens.  

* Chen,  Yong. ''Chinese San Francisco, 1850–1943: A Trans-Pacific Community'' (2000).  

* Chen,  Yong. ''Chinese San Francisco, 1850–1943: A Trans-Pacific Community'' (2000).  

* Chung, S.F. "Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-82," ''California History,'' Vol. 82, Fall 2004 [http://www.questia.com/read/5008790964?title=Chinese%20Immigrants%2c%20African%20Americans%2c%20and%20Racial%20Anxiety%20in%20the%20United%20States%2c%201848-82 online edition]

* Chung, S.F. "Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-82," ''California History,'' Vol. 82, Fall 2004 [http://www.questia.com/read/5008790964?title=Chinese%20Immigrants%2c%20African%20Americans%2c%20and%20Racial%20Anxiety%20in%20the%20United%20States%2c%201848-82 online edition]

* Coolidge, Mary Roberts. ''Chinese Immigration'' (1909), [http://books.google.com/books?id=U7MJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP8&dq=inauthor:mary+inauthor:coolidge&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 complete text online]

* Coolidge, Mary Roberts. ''Chinese Immigration'' (1909), [https://books.google.com/books?id=U7MJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP8&dq=inauthor:mary+inauthor:coolidge&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 complete text online]

* Ettinger, Patrick. "'We Sometimes Wonder What They Will Spring on Us Next': Immigrants and Border Enforcement in the American West, 1882-1930." ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 2006 37(2): 159-181. Issn: 0043-3810 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]

* Ettinger, Patrick. "'We Sometimes Wonder What They Will Spring on Us Next': Immigrants and Border Enforcement in the American West, 1882-1930." ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 2006 37(2): 159-181. Issn: 0043-3810 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]

* Griffith, Sarah M. "Border Crossings: Race, Class, and Smuggling in Pacific Coast Chinese Immigrant Society." ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 2004 35(4): 473-492. Issn: 0043-3810 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]

* Griffith, Sarah M. "Border Crossings: Race, Class, and Smuggling in Pacific Coast Chinese Immigrant Society." ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 2004 35(4): 473-492. Issn: 0043-3810 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]

* Hunt, Michael. ''The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914'' (1983), on diplomacy of restriction [http://www.questia.com/read/45607091?title=The%20Making%20of%20a%20Special%20Relationship%3a%20The%20United%20States%20and%20China%20to%201914 online edition]

* Hunt, Michael. ''The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914'' (1983), on diplomacy of restriction [http://www.questia.com/read/45607091?title=The%20Making%20of%20a%20Special%20Relationship%3a%20The%20United%20States%20and%20China%20to%201914 online edition]

* Jung, Moon-ho. "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701. Issn: 0003-0678 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]

* Jung, Moon-ho. "Outlawing 'Coolies': Race, Nation, and Empire in the Age of Emancipation." ''American Quarterly'' 2005 57(3): 677-701. Issn: 0003-0678 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]

* Lau, Estelle. ''Paper Families: Identity, Immigration Administration, and Chinese Exclusion'' (2006) [http://books.google.com/books?id=hwPA6GJ5SCEC&pg=PA17&dq=intitle:chinese+intitle:exclusion+date:0-2008&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3&sig=uH3ZakPLNSygKeJILCfsURRql3E excerpt and text search]

* Lau, Estelle. ''Paper Families: Identity, Immigration Administration, and Chinese Exclusion'' (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwPA6GJ5SCEC&pg=PA17&dq=intitle:chinese+intitle:exclusion+date:0-2008&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3&sig=uH3ZakPLNSygKeJILCfsURRql3E excerpt and text search]

* Lee, Erika. "Enforcing the Borders: Chinese Exclusion along the U.S. Borders with Canada and Mexico, 1882–1924," ''Journal of American History'' 89 (June 2002): 54–86. [http://mc1litvip.jstor.org/pss/2700784 in JSTOR]

* Lee, Erika. "Enforcing the Borders: Chinese Exclusion along the U.S. Borders with Canada and Mexico, 1882–1924," ''Journal of American History'' 89 (June 2002): 54–86. [http://mc1litvip.jstor.org/pss/2700784 in JSTOR]

* Lee, Erika. "The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924." ''Journal of American Ethnic History'' 2002 21(3): 36-62. Issn: 0278-5927 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Lee, Erika. "The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924." ''Journal of American Ethnic History'' 2002 21(3): 36-62. Issn: 0278-5927 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* [http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/themes-exclusion.html books and government documents, pre 1920s, both pro and anti-restriction]

* [http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/themes-exclusion.html books and government documents, pre 1920s, both pro and anti-restriction]

* [http://books.google.com/books?id=yI8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=exempting+teachers,+students,+merchants,+&source=web&ots=gdnaKeID9Z&sig=hEj_jpU3H0Mpsn-qoW6vJLaD-R0&hl=en#PPA185,M1 ''Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia: 1902'' (1903) pp 185-189] summary of debates in Congress in 1902

* [https://books.google.com/books?id=yI8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=exempting+teachers,+students,+merchants,+&source=web&ots=gdnaKeID9Z&sig=hEj_jpU3H0Mpsn-qoW6vJLaD-R0&hl=en#PPA185,M1 ''Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia: 1902'' (1903) pp 185-189] summary of debates in Congress in 1902

*  Yung, Judy, et al. ads. ''Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinese-American-Voices-Gold-Present/dp/0520243102/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212931634&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

*  Yung, Judy, et al. ads. ''Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinese-American-Voices-Gold-Present/dp/0520243102/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212931634&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award99/cubhtml/cichome.html "The Chinese in California: 1850-1925"] 8,000 pages of photos and primary source  

* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award99/cubhtml/cichome.html "The Chinese in California: 1850-1925"] 8,000 pages of photos and primary source