Changes

==Textiles==

==Textiles==

The industrial revolution was headed by the British cotton industry. For centuries this market had been dominated by individuals; cloth would be spun and woven by hand. However, in the 1700’s advances in technology began to drive out the homemade cotton industry. Such machines Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning machine and Edmund Cartwright’s power loom could make higher quality cloth and sell it for a cheaper price. Britain's cotton textile production was boosted beyond any competition.  

The industrial revolution was headed by the British cotton industry. For centuries this market had been dominated by individuals; cloth would be spun and woven by hand. However, in the 1700s advances in technology began to drive out the homemade cotton industry. Such machines Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning machine and Edmund Cartwright’s power loom could make higher quality cloth and sell it for a cheaper price. Britain's cotton textile production was boosted beyond any competition.  

For centuries the spinning of fibers into yarn and the weaving of yarn into cloth had remained a manual operation. In England, for example, women and children, working at home, combed cotton with wire brushes and spun it by hand; the father then wove the cotton on a hand loom. Output was expensive and consumed locally. Most of Britain's cloth was home-made from wool in the West Country, Yorkshire and Lancashire. 1702 a critical turning point occurred when Thomas Cotchett and George Sorocold built a silk mill powered by a waterwheel at Derby. Their mill was probably Britain's first factory, for it was a single establishment with complex machinery, a source of power and accommodation for workers.  

For centuries the spinning of fibers into yarn and the weaving of yarn into cloth had remained a manual operation. In England, for example, women and children, working at home, combed cotton with wire brushes and spun it by hand; the father then wove the cotton on a hand loom. Output was expensive and consumed locally. Most of Britain's cloth was home-made from wool in the West Country, Yorkshire and Lancashire. 1702 a critical turning point occurred when Thomas Cotchett and George Sorocold built a silk mill powered by a waterwheel at Derby. Their mill was probably Britain's first factory, for it was a single establishment with complex machinery, a source of power and accommodation for workers.  

==Coal mining==

==Coal mining==

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce—the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 millions tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref>Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [http://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce—the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 million tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref>Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [http://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

==Iron and steel==

==Iron and steel==

see [[Steel industry]]

see [[Steel industry]]

Throughout the middle ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in 1780’s, greatly encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.  

Throughout the Middle Ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in 1780’s, greatly encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.  

Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860.<ref>Small amounts of steel were produced before the 1860s, but it was five times stronger than cast iron.</ref>  Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply.  His invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783 Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag.  The result was malleable iron in large quantities.  The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728-1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779 the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830 Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847-48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling-stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.<ref>Clapham 1:425-28</ref>

Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860.<ref>Small amounts of steel were produced before the 1860s, but it was five times stronger than cast iron.</ref>  Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply.  His invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783 Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag.  The result was malleable iron in large quantities.  The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728-1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779 the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830 Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847-48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling-stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.<ref>Clapham 1:425-28</ref>

==Japan==

==Japan==

Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo an industrial revoltion. Sponsored by the state from the 1860s, it copied European models, bringing in machinery and experts. The agrarian sector was capable of feeding the growing population, and provided a steady stream of workers to the fast growing industrial cities. Japan's industrialization grew rapidly after 1890, stimulated primarily by internal demand, and financed primarily by internal capital.  It first developed a large textile industry. It had some coal and increased its production, but demand outran supply, so overall Japan became an importer of coal. It imported iron ore from China.<ref>William W. Lockwood, ''The Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change, 1868-1938'' (1954)</ref>

Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo an industrial revolution. Sponsored by the state from the 1860s, it copied European models, bringing in machinery and experts. The agrarian sector was capable of feeding the growing population, and provided a steady stream of workers to the fast growing industrial cities. Japan's industrialization grew rapidly after 1890, stimulated primarily by internal demand, and financed primarily by internal capital.  It first developed a large textile industry. It had some coal and increased its production, but demand outran supply, so overall Japan became an importer of coal. It imported iron ore from China.<ref>William W. Lockwood, ''The Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change, 1868-1938'' (1954)</ref>

==Historiography ==

==Historiography ==

* Ashton, T. S.  ''The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830'' (1948)[http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-industrial-revolution-1760-1830-by-t-s-ashton.jsp online edition]

* Ashton, T. S.  ''The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830'' (1948)[http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-industrial-revolution-1760-1830-by-t-s-ashton.jsp online edition]

* Berg, Maxine. ''The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820:  Industry, Innovation and Work in Britain'' (2nd ed 1994)

* Berg, Maxine. ''The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820:  Industry, Innovation and Work in Britain'' (2nd ed 1994)

* Berg, Maxine , and Pat Hudson. "Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution," ''The Economic History Review,'' Vol. 45, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp.&nbsp;24–50 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-0117(199202)2%3A45%3A1%3C24%3ARTIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 online at JSTOR]

* Berg, Maxine, and Pat Hudson. "Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution," ''The Economic History Review,'' Vol. 45, No. 1 (Feb., 1992), pp.&nbsp;24–50 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-0117(199202)2%3A45%3A1%3C24%3ARTIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 online at JSTOR]

* Chandler, Alfred Dupont. ''The visible hand: the managerial revolution in American business'' (1977) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=industrial;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb00628.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Chandler, Alfred Dupont. ''The visible hand: the managerial revolution in American business'' (1977) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=industrial;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb00628.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Clapham, J.H. ''An Economic History Of Modern Britain 1820-1850'' (2 vol 1939) [http://www.archive.org/details/economichistoryo033287mbp vol 1 "The Early Railway Age" online]

* Clapham, J.H. ''An Economic History Of Modern Britain 1820-1850'' (2 vol 1939) [http://www.archive.org/details/economichistoryo033287mbp vol 1 "The Early Railway Age" online]

* Farnie, Douglas Antony, and David J. Jeremy. ''The Fibre That Changed the World: The Cotton Industry in International Perspective, 1600-1990s'' 2004  

* Farnie, Douglas Antony, and David J. Jeremy. ''The Fibre That Changed the World: The Cotton Industry in International Perspective, 1600-1990s'' 2004  

*  Giedion, Sigfried, ''Mechanization takes command: a contribution to anonymous history'' (1948) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=industrial;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb01139.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

*  Giedion, Sigfried, ''Mechanization takes command: a contribution to anonymous history'' (1948) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=industrial;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb01139.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Goldstone, Jack A. "Efflorescences and Economic Growth in World History: Rethinking the 'Rise of the West' and the Industrial Revolution," ''Journal of World History''  Vol 13#2 , Fall 2002, pp.&nbsp;323–389 in Project Muse

* Goldstone, Jack A. "Efflorescences and Economic Growth in World History: Rethinking the 'Rise of the West' and the Industrial Revolution," ''Journal of World History''  Vol 13#2, Fall 2002, pp.&nbsp;323–389 in Project Muse

* Horn, Jeff. ''The Industrial Revolution: Milestones in Business History'' (2007). 190pp. ISBN 978-0-313-33853-3; basic textbook

* Horn, Jeff. ''The Industrial Revolution: Milestones in Business History'' (2007). 190pp. ISBN 978-0-313-33853-3; basic textbook

* Hudson, Pat. ''The Industrial Revolution'' 1992

* Hudson, Pat. ''The Industrial Revolution'' 1992