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Line 94: − The '''history of the papacy''' is a major factor in European history, especially the Middle Ages.+ − + − The Pope has been the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for over 1600 years. The Eastern Orthodox churches reject his claims to primacy. Even more vigorously the Protestant Reformation rejected Papal claims to primacy. As secular leaders the Popes controlled Rome and the Papal States in central Italy until 1870, and especially in the 16th century were notable patrons of the arts, turning St. Peter's Church in Rome into an architectural wonder, especially notable for the artwork in its Sistine Chapel.<ref>Famous patrons of the arts include Sixtus IV (1471-1484), [[Julius II]] (1503-1513), and Clement VII (1523-1534)</ref> − − Since 1929 the Pope controls only the small Vatican City-state (located inside Rome), but has diplomatic relations with most nations. The Pope's power comes from his appointment of all the bishops in the Catholic Church, and from his ability (since 1870) to proclaim a theological doctrine infallibly. The history of the Popes is interwoven with the history of the Catholic Church and the history of Europe. In terms of personalities and morality, the 262 Popes were saints and sinners who ranged very widely indeed.<ref>They were all men. The story of Joan who disguised herself as a man and became Pope sometime between 850 and 1050 was exposed as a false myth in 1650, but still circulates. Kelly (1998) 331-32.</ref> In recent centuries most have been holy men and in recent decades they have been linguists able to speak to Catholics in many languages. In recent centuries most Popes have been scions of Italian nobility; notable exceptions are Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) the first Polish Pope, Benedict XVI (2005-2013) the first German since 1523 and [[Pope Francis]] (2013- ) from [[Argentina]] the first Pope from either of the American continents. − ===Traditions===+ − Catholic tradition argues that Christ told Peter to found a church, that he built one in Rome, that all Popes descend from him, and that the bishop of Rome has divine authority to rule over the Church. Protestants say the Biblical texts are silent concerning any grant of universal leadership, let alone an infallible one. It was asserted centuries after Christ. Protestants often insist also that the relationship between Christ and the sinner is interrupted by the imposition of an Earthly intercessor. However, this objection is based on a mistaken belief that "intercessor" and "mediator" are synonyms which mean exactly the same thing (see [[Intercession of the saints]], [[Mediation]], and [[Intercession]]). Line 135:
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→History: moved summary block of material to end of section as a conclusion to the history, some slight revision
==History==
==History==
===Traditions===
Catholic tradition argues that Christ told Peter to found a church, that he built one in Rome, that all Popes [[Apostolic succession|descend]] from him, and that the bishop of Rome has always implicitly had the divine authority to rule over the Church.
Protestants say the Biblical texts are silent concerning any grant of universal leadership, let alone an infallible one. It was asserted centuries after Christ, when eastern bishops began claiming that primacy of rule in the Empire properly belonged to [[Constantinople]]. Protestants often insist also that the relationship between Christ and the sinner is interrupted by the imposition of an Earthly intercessor. However, this objection is based on a mistaken belief that "intercessor" and "mediator" are synonyms which always mean exactly the same thing, but this is not accurate (see [[Intercession of the saints]], [[Mediation]], and [[Intercession]]).
Indeed, the history of the [[Reformation]] is the history of the rejection of the Papacy, while the history of the [[Counter-Reformation]] is the history of a reassertion of its power using moral authority, diplomacy, and orders such as the [[Jesuits]].
Indeed, the history of the [[Reformation]] is the history of the rejection of the Papacy, while the history of the [[Counter-Reformation]] is the history of a reassertion of its power using moral authority, diplomacy, and orders such as the [[Jesuits]].
=====Peter and Paul=====
=====Peter and Paul=====
Peter (and Paul) did found a church in Rome in A.D. 42<ref>Archaeological evidence cited:
Peter (and Paul) did firmly establish and confirm a church founded in Rome in A.D. 42<ref>Archaeological evidence cited:
*[http://catholicapologetics.info/apologetics/general/rome.htm Was St. Peter in Rome? archaeological evidence (catholicapologetics.info)]
*[http://catholicapologetics.info/apologetics/general/rome.htm Was St. Peter in Rome? archaeological evidence (catholicapologetics.info)]
*[https://www.catholic.com/tract/was-peter-in-rome Was Peter in Rome? (catholic.com)]</ref><ref>Paul was not the original founder of the church in Rome. See [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans1:8-15&version=KJV Romans 1:8-15].</ref> and Peter served as the bishop for 25 years until A.D. 67 when he was [[martyr]]ed. However, the primacy of the bishop of Rome as patriarch in the Western Roman Empire, always acknowledged as "first in dignity", was not unequivocally established as having ''[[Jurisdiction|juridical]]'' primacy for several centuries, and even then was rejected by eastern bishops who guide the Eastern Orthodox Church under the leadership of the Patriarch of Constantinople<ref>[https://orthodoxwiki.org/Primacy_and_Unity_in_Orthodox_Ecclesiology Primacy and Unity in Orthodox Ecclesiology (orthodoxwiki.org)]</ref>
*[https://www.catholic.com/tract/was-peter-in-rome Was Peter in Rome? (catholic.com)]</ref><ref>Paul was not the original founder of the church in Rome. See [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans1:8-15&version=KJV Romans 1:8-15].</ref> and Peter served as the bishop for 25 years until A.D. 67 when he was [[martyr]]ed. However, the primacy of the bishop of Rome as patriarch in the Western Roman Empire, always acknowledged as "first in dignity", was not unequivocally established as having ''[[Jurisdiction|juridical]]'' primacy for several centuries, and even then a claim to universal primacy "based on history, reason and scripture"<ref>[[Vatican I|First Vatican Council of 1870]]</ref> was rejected by eastern bishops who guide the Eastern Orthodox Church under the leadership of the Patriarch of Constantinople<ref>[https://orthodoxwiki.org/Primacy_and_Unity_in_Orthodox_Ecclesiology Primacy and Unity in Orthodox Ecclesiology (orthodoxwiki.org)]</ref>
===Early history to 350===
===Early history to 350===
===Early Middle Ages: 350-1000===
===Early Middle Ages: 350-1000===
The '''history of the papacy''' has been a major factor in European history, especially the [[Middle Ages]].
The Pope officially either directly presided over most of the [[Ecumenical council]]s of the Christian Church or he sent his personal representatives called papal [[legate]]s to act and speak in his name with his authority.
The Pope officially either directly presided over most of the [[Ecumenical council]]s of the Christian Church or he sent his personal representatives called papal [[legate]]s to act and speak in his name with his authority.
The First Ecumenical Council: [[Council of Nicaea|First Council of Nicaea]] 325, called by the Roman Emperor [[Constantine]] the Great with Pope [[Saint Sylvester I]] sitting on the Throne of Peter as the 33rd successor of Saint Peter.
The First Ecumenical Council: [[Council of Nicaea|First Council of Nicaea]] 325, called by the Roman Emperor [[Constantine]] the Great with Pope [[Saint Sylvester I]] sitting on the Throne of Peter as the 33rd successor of Saint Peter.
The Second Ecumenical Council: [[Constantinople I|First Council of Constantinople]] 381 convened by the Roman Emperor of the East [[Theodosius I]]. Neither the Holy Father Pope Saint [[Damasus I]] or his papal legates attended because of friction between him and the emperor over authority. Already the split between East and West was manifesting itself. 186 bishops did attend, including [[Saint Gregory Nazianzen]] and Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]]. Canon 3 of this Council states: "''Because it is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome.''"<ref>[http://papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum02.htm#3 Canon iii]</ref>
The Second Ecumenical Council: [[Constantinople I|First Council of Constantinople]] 381 convened by the Roman Emperor of the West [[Gratian]] and the Roman Emperor of the East [[Theodosius I]]. Neither the Holy Father Pope Saint [[Damasus I]] or his papal legates attended because of friction between him and the eastern emperor over authority. Already the split between East and West was manifesting itself. 186 bishops did attend, including [[Saint Gregory Nazianzen]] and Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]]. Canon 3 of this Council states: "''Because it is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome.''"<ref>[http://papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum02.htm#3 Canon iii]</ref> Constantinople was second only to Rome. Many eastern bishops disagreed.
The Third Ecumenical Council: [[Council of Ephesus]] 431 called by the Roman Emperor of the East Theodosius II, influenced by his saintly sister [[Saint Pulcheria]], in harmony with Pope [[Saint Celestine I]].
The Third Ecumenical Council: [[Council of Ephesus]] 431 called by the Roman Emperor of the East Theodosius II, influenced by his saintly sister [[Saint Pulcheria]], in harmony with Pope [[Saint Celestine I]].
====Holocaust issues====
====Holocaust issues====
Coppa (2005) reassesses the attitudes and policies toward Nazi racism of Pope Pius XI (1922-1939). Although Pius XI accepted and practiced religious anti-Judaism, he consistently opposed racial anti-Semitism on theological grounds throughout his papacy. As a result, he resisted the course of accommodation and conciliation favored by others within the Catholic Church, including Eugenio Pacelli (1876-1958), who served as papal secretary of state from 1930 prior to succeeding Pius XI as Pope Pius XII in 1939. Between 1933 and 1939 Pius XI waged a campaign against Nazi and Fascist racism and anti-Semitism that included public speeches and published condemnations denouncing the division of humanity on the basis of race as well as the commission of a "secret" encyclical on the incompatibility of racism and Catholicism that remained unpublished until 1995. His confrontational stance therefore sharply contrasted with the silence of Pope Pius XII during the Holocaust.
Coppa (2005) reassesses the attitudes and policies toward Nazi racism of Pope Pius XI (1922-1939). Although Pius XI accepted and practiced religious anti-Judaism, he consistently opposed racial anti-Semitism on theological grounds throughout his papacy. As a result, he resisted the course of accommodation and conciliation favored by others within the Catholic Church, including Eugenio Pacelli (1876-1958), who served as papal secretary of state from 1930 prior to succeeding Pius XI as Pope Pius XII in 1939. Between 1933 and 1939 Pius XI waged a campaign against Nazi and Fascist racism and anti-Semitism that included public speeches and published condemnations denouncing the division of humanity on the basis of race as well as the commission of a "secret" encyclical on the incompatibility of racism and Catholicism that remained unpublished until 1995. His confrontational stance therefore sharply contrasted with the silence of Pope Pius XII during the Holocaust.
===General summary of history===
The Pope has been the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for over 1600 years. The Eastern Orthodox churches reject his claims to primacy. Even more vigorously the Protestant Reformation rejected both Papal claims to primacy and the authority of the Patriarchs of the East. As [[secular]] leaders the Popes controlled Rome and the [[Papal States]] in central Italy until 1870, and especially in the 16th century were notable patrons of the arts, turning St. Peter's Church in Rome into an architectural wonder, especially notable for the artwork in its Sistine Chapel.<ref>Famous patrons of the arts include Sixtus IV (1471-1484), [[Julius II]] (1503-1513), and Clement VII (1523-1534)</ref>
Since 1929 the Pope controls only the small Vatican City-state (located inside Rome), but has diplomatic relations with most nations. The Pope's power comes from his appointment of all the bishops in the [[Catholic Church]] (which includes the Roman Catholic Church), and from his ability (since 1870) to proclaim a theological doctrine infallibly. The history of the Popes is interwoven with the history of the Catholic Church and the history of Europe. The 262 Popes were saints and sinners<ref>They were all men. The 15th century story of "[[Pope Joan]]" who disguised herself as a man and became Pope sometime between A.D. 850 and 1050 was exposed as a false myth in 1650, but still circulates. Kelly (1998) 331-32.</ref> who ranged very widely indeed in terms of personalities and morality. In recent centuries most popes have been holy men and in recent decades they have been linguists able to speak to Catholics in many languages. In recent centuries most Popes have been scions of Italian nobility; notable exceptions are Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) the first Polish Pope, Benedict XVI (2005-2013) the first German since 1523 and [[Pope Francis]] (2013- ) from [[Argentina]] the first Pope from either of the American continents.
The papacy has become a major factor in world history by promoting the Christian message globally through more extensive missionary work, ecumenical dialogue and increasingly active use of worldwide publishing and broadcast audio/visual media such as the [[Eternal Word Television Network]] (EWTN).
==Continuous, unbroken witness in history==
==Continuous, unbroken witness in history==