Changes

The term "old regime" is often applied to other countries for the traditionalism before modernization.  

The term "old regime" is often applied to other countries for the traditionalism before modernization.  

==Society and Population==

==Society and Population==

===Women===

===Women===

Very few women held power - some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the [[Enlightenment]] the writings of philosopher [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] gave political program for reform of the ancien régime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a "modern" society.<ref>Jennifer J. Popiel, "Making Mothers: The Advice Genre And The Domestic Ideal, 1760-1830," ''Journal of Family History'' 2004 29(4): 339-350</ref>  

Very few women held power - some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the [[Enlightenment]] the writings of philosopher [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] gave political program for reform of the ancien régime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a "modern" society.<ref>Jennifer J. Popiel, "Making Mothers: The Advice Genre And The Domestic Ideal, 1760-1830," ''Journal of Family History'' 2004 29(4): 339-350</ref>

 

====Queens====

====Queens====

[[Salic law]] prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could assure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.

[[Salic law]] prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could assure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.

===Stepfamilies===

===Stepfamilies===

A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "Coresidence of Siblings, Half-siblings, and Step-siblings in 'Ancien Regime' France." 'History of the Family'' 2000 5(3): 299-314 online  at [[EBSCO]]</ref>

A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "Coresidence of Siblings, Half-siblings, and Step-siblings in 'Ancien Regime' France." 'History of the Family'' 2000 5(3): 299-314 online  at [[EBSCO]]</ref>

The experience of stepmotherhood was surrounded by negative stereotypes; the [[Cinderella]] story and many other jokes and stories made the second wife an object of ridicule. Language, theater, popular sayings, the position of the Church, and the writings of jurists all made stepmother a difficult identity to take up. However, the importance of male remarriage suggests that reconstitution of family units was a necessity and that individuals resisted negative perceptions circulating through their communities. Widowers did not hesitate to take a second wife, and they usually found quite soon a partner willing to become a stepmother. For these women, being a stepmother was not necessarily the experience of a lifetime or what defined their identity. Their experience depended greatly on factors such as the length of the union, changing family configuration, and financial dispositions taken by their husbands.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "La Maratre Dans La France D'ancien Regime: Integration Ou Marginalite?" ["The Stepmother in Ancien Régime France: Integration or Marginality?] ''Annales De Demographie Historique'' 2006 (2): 171-188 in French</ref>

The experience of stepmotherhood was surrounded by negative stereotypes; the [[Cinderella]] story and many other jokes and stories made the second wife an object of ridicule. Language, theater, popular sayings, the position of the Church, and the writings of jurists all made stepmother a difficult identity to take up. However, the importance of male remarriage suggests that reconstitution of family units was a necessity and that individuals resisted negative perceptions circulating through their communities. Widowers did not hesitate to take a second wife, and they usually found quite soon a partner willing to become a stepmother. For these women, being a stepmother was not necessarily the experience of a lifetime or what defined their identity. Their experience depended greatly on factors such as the length of the union, changing family configuration, and financial dispositions taken by their husbands.<ref>Sylvie Perrier, "La Maratre Dans La France D'ancien Regime: Integration Ou Marginalite?" ["The Stepmother in Ancien Régime France: Integration or Marginality?] ''Annales De Demographie Historique'' 2006 (2): 171-188 in French</ref>

==Religion==

==Religion==

The religious violence in 16th century France erupted within the context of instability in municipal authority. There was normally room for tolerance of Protestantism in the community; in the early 17th century, a culture of religious coexistence existed based on the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1598), which gave the Huguenots (Protestants) considerable legal rights. There also seems to have a sort of routine tolerance in the everyday life of mixed communities, which remained almost normal as long as both churches were unable to shift back toward orthodox intransigence. Against this background, the agitation of the 1620s revealed how unmotivated the Protestants really had become, since their political fate had in fact been sealed around 1575, after the [[Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]].

The religious violence in 16th century France erupted within the context of instability in municipal authority. There was normally room for tolerance of Protestantism in the community; in the early 17th century, a culture of religious coexistence existed based on the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1598), which gave the Huguenots (Protestants) considerable legal rights. There also seems to have a sort of routine tolerance in the everyday life of mixed communities, which remained almost normal as long as both churches were unable to shift back toward orthodox intransigence. Against this background, the agitation of the 1620s revealed how unmotivated the Protestants really had become, since their political fate had in fact been sealed around 1575, after the [[Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]].

===Reformation and the Protestant Minority===

===Reformation and the Protestant Minority===

French Protestantism, which was largely [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] derived its support from the lesser nobles and trading classes. Its two main strongholds were south west France and Normandy, but even in these districts the Catholics were a majority. Protestantism in France was considered a grave threat to national unity, as the [[Huguenot]] minority felt a closer affinity with German and Dutch Calvinists than with their fellow Frenchmen. In an effort to cement their position they often allied with French enemies. The aminosity between the two sides led to the [[French Wars of Religion]] and the tragic [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]. The religious wars ended in 1593, when the Huguenot Henry of Navarre (1553-1610), who was already effectively king of France became a Catholic and was recognised by both Catholics and Protestants as King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] (reigned 1589-1610).  

French Protestantism, which was largely [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] derived its support from the lesser nobles and trading classes. Its two main strongholds were south west France and Normandy, but even in these districts the Catholics were a majority. Protestantism in France was considered a grave threat to national unity, as the [[Huguenot]] minority felt a closer affinity with German and Dutch Calvinists than with their fellow Frenchmen. In an effort to cement their position they often allied with French enemies. The aminosity between the two sides led to the [[French Wars of Religion]] and the tragic [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]. The religious wars ended in 1593, when the Huguenot Henry of Navarre (1553-1610), who was already effectively king of France became a Catholic and was recognised by both Catholics and Protestants as King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] (reigned 1589-1610).  

Montpelier was among the most important of the 66 "villes de sûreté" that the Edict of 1598 granted to the Huguenots. The city's political institutions and the university were all handed over to the Huguenots. Tension with Paris led to a siege by the royal army in 1622. Peace terms called for the dismantling of the city's fortifications. A royal citadel was built and the university and consulate were taken over by the Catholic party. Even before the Edict of Alès (1629), Protestant rule was dead and the ville de sûreté was no more.

Montpelier was among the most important of the 66 "villes de sûreté" that the Edict of 1598 granted to the Huguenots. The city's political institutions and the university were all handed over to the Huguenots. Tension with Paris led to a siege by the royal army in 1622. Peace terms called for the dismantling of the city's fortifications. A royal citadel was built and the university and consulate were taken over by the Catholic party. Even before the Edict of Alès (1629), Protestant rule was dead and the ville de sûreté was no more.

By 1620 the Huguenots were on the defensive, and the government increasingly applied pressure.  A series of small civil wars that broke out in southern France between 1610 and 1635 were long considered by historians to be regional squabbles between rival noble families. New analysis shows that these civil wars were in fact religious in nature, remnants of the French Wars of Religion that largely ended with the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Small wars in the provinces of Languedoc and Guyenne show Catholic and Calvinist groups using destruction of churches, iconoclasm, forced conversions, and the execution of heretics as weapons of choice.

By 1620 the Huguenots were on the defensive, and the government increasingly applied pressure.  A series of small civil wars that broke out in southern France between 1610 and 1635 were long considered by historians to be regional squabbles between rival noble families. New analysis shows that these civil wars were, in fact, religious in nature, remnants of the French Wars of Religion that largely ended with the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Small wars in the provinces of Languedoc and Guyenne show Catholic and Calvinist groups using destruction of churches, iconoclasm, forced conversions, and the execution of heretics as weapons of choice.

Louis XIV acted more and more aggressively to force the Huguenots to convert. At first he sent missionaries to convert them, backed by a fund to financially reward converts to Catholicism. Then he imposed penalties and closed their schools and excluded them from favorite professions. Escalating the attack, he tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by the employment of armed [[dragonnades]] (soldiers) to occupy and loot their houses, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of about 180,000 Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, doctors and business leaders in Britain as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa.  4000 went to the American colonies. The English welcomed the French refugees, providing money from both government and private agencies to aid their relocation. Those Huguenots who stayed in France became Catholics and were called "new converts."  Only a few Protestant villages remained in isolated areas.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'', ch 24; Bertrand Van Ruymbeke, "Escape from Babylon." ''Christian History'' 2001 20(3): 38-42. Issn: 0891-9666 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Louis XIV acted more and more aggressively to force the Huguenots to convert. At first, he sent missionaries to convert them, backed by a fund to financially reward converts to Catholicism. Then he imposed penalties and closed their schools and excluded them from favorite professions. Escalating the attack, he tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by the employment of armed [[dragonnades]] (soldiers) to occupy and loot their houses, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of about 180,000 Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, doctors and business leaders in Britain as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa.  4000 went to the American colonies. The English welcomed the French refugees, providing money from both government and private agencies to aid their relocation. Those Huguenots who stayed in France became Catholics and were called "new converts."  Only a few Protestant villages remained in isolated areas.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'', ch 24; Bertrand Van Ruymbeke, "Escape from Babylon." ''Christian History'' 2001 20(3): 38-42. Issn: 0891-9666 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Gallicanism===

===Gallicanism===

===Monasteries===

===Monasteries===

From the end of the Wars of Religion to the French Revolution, Menat, a Cluniac abbey dating back to 1107, ruled over the Sioule Valley in the northwest region of the Clermont diocese. The monks were large landholders and developed a diversified and complex set of links with their neighbors; they received seigniorial rights, provided work to the rural poor, and were in daily contact with notaries public, merchants, and surgeons. While they did not directly manage the religious life of the faithful (parish priests did that), monks did constitute a motivating force in it through their setting up of a parish clergy, providing alms and social services, and playing the role of intercessors. Until the French Revolution, the monastic community constituted a key element of the economic, social, and religious life of a local French territory under the Old Regime.

From the end of the Wars of Religion to the French Revolution, Menat, a Cluniac abbey dating back to 1107, ruled over the Sioule Valley in the northwest region of the Clermont diocese. The monks were large landholders and developed a diversified and complex set of links with their neighbors; they received seigniorial rights, provided work to the rural poor, and were in daily contact with notaries public, merchants, and surgeons. While they did not directly manage the religious life of the faithful (parish priests did that), monks did constitute a motivating force in it through their setting up of a parish clergy, providing alms and social services, and playing the role of intercessors. Until the French Revolution, the monastic community constituted a key element of the economic, social, and religious life of a local French territory under the Old Regime.

===Convents===

===Convents===

Communities of nuns in France on the eve of Revolution had, on average, 25 members and a median age of 48 years. Nuns were both entering the profession later and living longer than before. In general, they had little wealth. Recruitment varied from region to region and by convent lifestyle (active or contemplative, austere or opulent, lower class or middle class). The nature of male and female monasticism differed greatly in France both before and during the revolution. Convents tended to be more isolated and less centrally controlled. This made for greater diversity among them than among male monasteries.<ref>Elizabeth Rapley and Robert Rapley, "An Image of Religious Women in the 'Ancien Regime:' the 'Etats Des Religieuses' of 1790-1791." ''French History'' 1997 11(4): 387-410</ref>

Communities of nuns in France on the eve of Revolution had, on average, 25 members and a median age of 48 years. Nuns were both entering the profession later and living longer than before. In general, they had little wealth. Recruitment varied from region to region and by convent lifestyle (active or contemplative, austere or opulent, lower class or middle class). The nature of male and female monasticism differed greatly in France both before and during the revolution. Convents tended to be more isolated and less centrally controlled. This made for greater diversity among them than among male monasteries.<ref>Elizabeth Rapley and Robert Rapley, "An Image of Religious Women in the 'Ancien Regime:' the 'Etats Des Religieuses' of 1790-1791." ''French History'' 1997 11(4): 387-410</ref>

==Rural society==

==Rural society==

In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the [[Annales School]] paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.<ref>James B. Collins, "Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-Modern France." ''Journal of Social History'' 1991 24(3): 563-577. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]. For the ''Annales'' interpretation see Pierre Goubert, ''The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/French-Peasantry-Seventeenth-Century/dp/0521312698/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197851902&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]</ref>

In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the [[Annales School]] paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.<ref>James B. Collins, "Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-Modern France." ''Journal of Social History'' 1991 24(3): 563-577. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]. For the ''Annales'' interpretation see Pierre Goubert, ''The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/French-Peasantry-Seventeenth-Century/dp/0521312698/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197851902&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]</ref>

* [[Louis XVI]]

* [[Louis XVI]]

* [[French Revolution]]

* [[French Revolution]]

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Baker, Keith, ed. ''The Political Culture of the Old Regime'' (1987), articles by leading scholars

* Baker, Keith, ed. ''The Political Culture of the Old Regime'' (1987), articles by leading scholars

* McManners,  John. ''Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France.'' Vol. 1: ''The Clerical Establishment and Its Social Ramifications''; Vol. 2: ''The Religion of the People and the Politics of Religion''(1999)

* McManners,  John. ''Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France.'' Vol. 1: ''The Clerical Establishment and Its Social Ramifications''; Vol. 2: ''The Religion of the People and the Politics of Religion''(1999)

*  Van Kley, Dale. ''The Religious Origins of the French Revolution: From Calvin to the Civil Constitution, 1560-1791'' (1996)  

*  Van Kley, Dale. ''The Religious Origins of the French Revolution: From Calvin to the Civil Constitution, 1560-1791'' (1996)  

* Ward, W. R. ''Christianity under the Ancien Régime, 1648-1789'' (1999).  

* Ward, W. R. ''Christianity under the Ancien Régime, 1648-1789'' (1999).

 

===Notes===

===Notes===

 

 

[[Category:French Revolution]]

[[Category:French Revolution]]

[[Category:French History]]

[[Category:French History]]