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[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.<br>''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]

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'''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 – November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official<ref>"Alger Hiss, a former [~~http~~://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]"; and "[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]..."</ref> and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.<ref>"The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss" [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)</ref> He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,<ref>Francis P. Sempa, "[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection]," ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a "liberal" rather than a communist, referring to "[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself]," writing that he had acquired a "liberal outlook" as a student, which was "strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School"; his work for Justice Holmes "increased my liberal convictions"; etc. He also had "[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party]." Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301</ref> putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.<ref>For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, "Conspiracy Theories," in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].</ref> The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.<ref>"The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled." (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, "Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important."(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)</ref>

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'''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 – November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official<ref>"Alger Hiss, a former [https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]"; and "[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]..."</ref> and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.<ref>"The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss" [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)</ref> He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,<ref>Francis P. Sempa, "[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection]," ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a "liberal" rather than a communist, referring to "[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself]," writing that he had acquired a "liberal outlook" as a student, which was "strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School"; his work for Justice Holmes "increased my liberal convictions"; etc. He also had "[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party]." Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301</ref> putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.<ref>For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, "Conspiracy Theories," in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].</ref> The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.<ref>"The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled." (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, "Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important."(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)</ref>

==Early life==

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===Harvard Law School===

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After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the "[[Ware group]]," an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)</ref> Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],<ref>Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein & Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X</ref> [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist<ref>Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23</ref> ''cause célèbre'',<ref>John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101</ref> and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a "militant communist," Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, "The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133</ref>

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After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the "[[Ware group]]," an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)</ref> Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],<ref>Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein & Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X</ref> [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist<ref>Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23</ref> ''cause célèbre'',<ref>John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101</ref> and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a "militant communist," Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, "The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133</ref>

==Early career==

[[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]<ref>According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, "[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)]," ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006</ref> group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60</ref> which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3381 public figures],<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146</ref> including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143</ref> Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as "a [[skeptic]] of the first order" who "denied the [[existence]] of [[God]]."<ref>[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].</ref>

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In violation of a condition of this employment<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47</ref> Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457</ref> Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11</ref> though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],<ref>[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31</ref> a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159</ref> Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall & Stewart].<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [~~http~~://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).</ref>

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In violation of a condition of this employment<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47</ref> Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457</ref> Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11</ref> though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],<ref>[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31</ref> a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159</ref> Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall & Stewart].<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [https://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).</ref>

[[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]<ref>Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan & Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234</ref> Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].</ref>

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==New Deal==

===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===

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[[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, "[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence]," ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]<ref>The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] "entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]]." Paul Roazen, "Introduction," Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6</ref> [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],<ref>"...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]]." Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52</ref> was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [~~http~~://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]<ref>[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52</ref> strongly urging him<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)</ref> to join FDR's administration.

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[[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, "[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence]," ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]<ref>The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] "entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]]." Paul Roazen, "Introduction," Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6</ref> [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],<ref>"...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]]." Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52</ref> was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [https://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]<ref>[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52</ref> strongly urging him<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)</ref> to join FDR's administration.

[[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA).

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That [[New Deal]]<ref>Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms." [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, "The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]"; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of "'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it—[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline "[~~http~~://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY]." In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote "I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help." Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185</ref> agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly "most impressed" with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]"). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired<ref>The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party." Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].</ref> [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]<ref>[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.</ref> in 1952.<ref>Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952</ref>

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That [[New Deal]]<ref>Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms." [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, "The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]"; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of "'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it—[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY]." In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote "I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help." Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185</ref> agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly "most impressed" with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]"). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired<ref>The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party." Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].</ref> [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]<ref>[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.</ref> in 1952.<ref>Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952</ref>

[[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,<ref>"...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust," who "was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy..." Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32</ref> 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million<ref>[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306</ref> people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already "[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished]."<ref>“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': "Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices."

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"In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families]." "[~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].</ref>

+

"In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families]." "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].</ref>

In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, "I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]<ref>Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92</ref> [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering" taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133</ref> but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94</ref> [[Harold Ware]],<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)</ref> son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|"Mother" Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].<ref>James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly "tricked" [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). "As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion]." (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93</ref> Ware recruited Hiss<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30</ref> into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA<ref>[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)</ref> known as the [[Ware group]].<ref>Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96</ref>

Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),<ref>[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)</ref> as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612</ref> [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)</ref> and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy<ref>[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282</ref> [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],<ref>John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed "Marxist"] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606</ref> as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent<ref>Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.</ref> Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to "achieve promotion—a primary goal," or whether to "try to influence policy," as well as "secret directives—for purloining official documents," etc.<ref>Hope Hale Davis, "Looking Back at my Years in the Party," ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., "Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case," [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87</ref> This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:

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{{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank<ref>According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [~~http~~://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was "the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty...." Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97</ref>... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.<ref>George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5</ref>}}

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{{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank<ref>According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was "the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty...." Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97</ref>... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.<ref>George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5</ref>}}

Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA<ref>Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. "Leonora Fuller" in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267</ref> would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> In February 1935, the "[[#refChronology|radicals]]" [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were "purged"] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&id=70 Gardner Jackson]:<ref>Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.</ref>

{{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as "the best fighters in a good cause" he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}

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===Nye Committee===

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[[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143</ref> Hiss, "[[#refChronology|on loan]]" from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s "merchants of death," whom he accused of conspiracy to "drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle" with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]<ref>John Whiteclay Chambers II, "[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.]," ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515</ref> maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a "witch-hunt" for "subversive [[capitalist]]s," in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)<ref>Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157</ref> On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that "capitalism was a cause of aggression,"<ref>James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261</ref> Hiss employed what would later come to be known as "McCarthyite"<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220</ref> methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was "as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant," particularly toward the "business leaders he cross-examined caustically."<ref>[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]</ref> One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].<ref>Bruce Craig, “[~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch "a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius]."</ref>

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[[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143</ref> Hiss, "[[#refChronology|on loan]]" from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s "merchants of death," whom he accused of conspiracy to "drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle" with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]<ref>John Whiteclay Chambers II, "[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.]," ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515</ref> maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a "witch-hunt" for "subversive [[capitalist]]s," in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)<ref>Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157</ref> On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that "capitalism was a cause of aggression,"<ref>James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261</ref> Hiss employed what would later come to be known as "McCarthyite"<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220</ref> methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was "as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant," particularly toward the "business leaders he cross-examined caustically."<ref>[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]</ref> One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].<ref>Bruce Craig, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch "a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius]."</ref>

The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116</ref> as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40</ref> [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29</ref> the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named "Ales" (pronounced "Alles") began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,<ref>This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the "Social Gospel" movement--who wrote that Christianity should "aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism." (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England "under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb" (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom "communism became... a substitute for religion." Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76</ref> would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref> Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44</ref> and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].<ref>John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53</ref>

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compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over—in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)</ref> or loaned<ref>Hiss: "my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know." [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)</ref> the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)</ref> But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].

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Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60</ref> William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47</ref> The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0505&week=b&msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&user=&pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [~~http~~://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,<ref>This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as "[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue]."</ref> told him:

+

Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60</ref> William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47</ref> The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0505&week=b&msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&user=&pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [https://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,<ref>This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as "[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue]."</ref> told him:

{{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53</ref>}}

The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,<ref>Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is "Yes".... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)</ref> notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,<ref>Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... "Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)"; then, written in is "Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest"... It says, "Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss." Then it says, "On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public." Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)</ref> but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.<ref>"U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall," ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. "[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19510317&id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round," ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6</ref>

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The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is "man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God." This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:

{{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: "No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design." The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16</ref>}}

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Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]<ref>Poretsky ([~~http~~://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's "liquidation" notes, "For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished." ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.</ref> and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],<ref>[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133</ref> Chambers asked his wife's nephew<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. "Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'" [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)</ref> to hide what he called his "life preserver"—a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41</ref> On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,<ref>Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775</ref> Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]<ref>Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357</ref> (and former Soviet agent)<ref>[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]</ref> [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had "photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them," which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318</ref>

+

Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]<ref>Poretsky ([https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's "liquidation" notes, "For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished." ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.</ref> and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],<ref>[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133</ref> Chambers asked his wife's nephew<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. "Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'" [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)</ref> to hide what he called his "life preserver"—a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41</ref> On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,<ref>Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775</ref> Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]<ref>Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357</ref> (and former Soviet agent)<ref>[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]</ref> [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had "photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them," which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318</ref>

===Far Eastern Division===

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===Nazi-Soviet Pact===

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[[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [~~http~~://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).<ref>See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic]," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, "[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow]," ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: "The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933." Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38</ref> Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].

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[[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).<ref>See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic]," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, "[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow]," ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: "The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933." Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38</ref> Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].

When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson<ref>[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45</ref> discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent<ref>Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, "The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor," U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.</ref> [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.</ref>

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Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],<ref>Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30</ref> where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, "most of them Jews."<ref>Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, "[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&b=395031 Writers in Extremis]," ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694</ref>

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But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[~~http~~://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”<ref>[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598</ref> (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]—the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91</ref> According to Levine:

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But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”<ref>[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598</ref> (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]—the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91</ref> According to Levine:

{{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to "go jump in a lake" upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive<ref>"an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&t=1314204947 obscene or profane]"; "an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&reversed=False&action=define&homonym=0&text=expletive swearword]." Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of "expletive" as a euphemism for "[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word]."</ref> remark on this order: "Oh, forget it, Adolf."<ref>[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198</ref>}}

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===Federal Bureau of Investigation===

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[[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official & Confidential File #34, [~~http~~://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)</ref> in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group<ref>Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410</ref> identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].<ref>Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171</ref> In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.<ref>As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: "There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information." ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])</ref>

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[[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official & Confidential File #34, [https://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)</ref> in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group<ref>Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410</ref> identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].<ref>Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171</ref> In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.<ref>As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: "There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information." ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])</ref>

After ex-[[OGPU]] agent<ref>J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]</ref> Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,<ref>Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158</ref> the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340</ref> After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106</ref> the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.<ref>FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92</ref> That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named "Moliere"),<ref>Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13</ref> controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224</ref> (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] "Pavel P. Mikhailov")<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)</ref> to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named "Viktor"]) in Moscow,<ref>[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)</ref> identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named "Neighbors")<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)</ref> reported someone "from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss]."

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one of "the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed."<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66</ref>

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[[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army "fights for FREEDOM." ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found "hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents]," including "five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab." From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, "I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports."<ref>George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42</ref>

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[[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army "fights for FREEDOM." ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found "hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents]," including "five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab." From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, "I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports."<ref>George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42</ref>

Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191</ref> [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named "Map."<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21</ref> Strong boasted that—with the help of American millionaire<ref>Gregg Herken, "[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950]," ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90</ref> Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])—she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana<ref>Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1</ref>—the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.<ref>Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94</ref> These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity<ref>[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124</ref> from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.<ref>Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208</ref> Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88</ref> and a Soviet agent<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263</ref> (code-named ''Lyre''),<ref>[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944</ref> but also the mistress<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257</ref> of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=0208&week=d&msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&user=&pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].

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Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.<ref>[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219</ref> He described preparing a shipment of "black suitcases" carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,<ref>Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468</ref> and released a statement warning:

{{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.

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The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].<ref>In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [~~http~~://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.</ref>}}

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The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].<ref>In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [https://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.</ref>}}

===Yalta===

On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring "people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences" at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] "did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity," but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt "Messrs. Bowman<ref>Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]</ref> and Alger Hiss ought to go."<ref>[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]</ref>

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Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be "not very bright," according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.<ref>Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197</ref> State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius "was not brilliant." But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) "other people's brains"]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [~~http~~://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)</ref> noted that "Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius."<ref>Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])</ref> Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that "all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15."<ref>Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=42&isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=441&isize=XL p. 441]</ref>

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Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be "not very bright," according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.<ref>Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197</ref> State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius "was not brilliant." But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) "other people's brains"]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)</ref> noted that "Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius."<ref>Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])</ref> Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that "all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15."<ref>Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=42&isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=441&isize=XL p. 441]</ref>

[[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, "[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind," according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].<ref>Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48</ref> "At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently," agreed former Soviet propagandist<ref>David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201</ref> W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered "occasional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concentration."<ref>William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207</ref> His face was "gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function," wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]<ref>Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35</ref> John Gunther. "I felt certain that he was going to die."<ref>John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29</ref> According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:

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====Poland====

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Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] "to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement," wrote Stettinius, "I called Alger Hiss."<ref>Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270</ref> The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,<ref>[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557</ref> [~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the "Ribbentrop-Molotov" line]]—the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta "went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures]." It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: "As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes," he wrote. "To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin."<ref>Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was "amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'." Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112</ref>

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Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] "to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement," wrote Stettinius, "I called Alger Hiss."<ref>Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270</ref> The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,<ref>[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557</ref> [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the "Ribbentrop-Molotov" line]]—the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta "went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures]." It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: "As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes," he wrote. "To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin."<ref>Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was "amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'." Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112</ref>

====China====

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Among the "memoranda for the President" Stettinius directed be placed "in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss," according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.<ref>[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151</ref>

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Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/~~http~~://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.<ref>Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156</ref> U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,<ref>Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267</ref> alleging the existence of a "Communist conspiracy within the State Department."<ref>Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447</ref>

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Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/https://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.<ref>Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156</ref> U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,<ref>Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267</ref> alleging the existence of a "Communist conspiracy within the State Department."<ref>Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447</ref>

Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for "peace and unity with the Communists in China," saying "It was not in my area of activity at all." Hiss admitted that he "had been connected with far eastern affairs before," but protested that after "about February 1944 [a year before he "stressed the importance" of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter."<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)</ref>

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Breindel, "Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt," ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)</ref> following up on a conversation with "Ales," that "Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]<ref>John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-Diplo&month=0501&week=a&msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&user=&pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005</ref> continuously since 1935"; that for "a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)</ref> of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives";<ref>[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]</ref> that recently, "Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals"; and that after "the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc." Regarding "Ales," one FBI memo reports:

{{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.<ref>FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137</ref>}}

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In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, "This could only be Alger Hiss."<ref>[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded "Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told." ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)</ref> Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [~~http~~://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions "eminently reasonable," writing that the evidence showed that "ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss."<ref>[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).</ref> John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification "[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]" and the evidence "compelling." [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, "it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]]." Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of "Ales" as Hiss is "beyond reasonable doubt."<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599</ref> The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], "seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss]."

+

In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, "This could only be Alger Hiss."<ref>[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded "Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told." ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)</ref> Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions "eminently reasonable," writing that the evidence showed that "ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss."<ref>[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).</ref> John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification "[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]" and the evidence "compelling." [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, "it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]]." Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of "Ales" as Hiss is "beyond reasonable doubt."<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599</ref> The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], "seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss]."

[[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name "Alger Hiss" in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named "Raid"]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his "[[Perlo group]]" whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name "Alger Hiss."<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78</ref> Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy "in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party," as well as an [[espionage]] agent who "disclosed much confidential matter."<ref>[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)</ref>

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[[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was "Ales." Stettinius told "Ales": "I hope it is not you."<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: "Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow." Eugene Dennis, "Yalta and America's National Unity," [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300</ref>

−

After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately "faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger."<ref>William Powell, [~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)</ref> Byrnes had been "pushed out" of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled "that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves."<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249</ref>

+

After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately "faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger."<ref>William Powell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)</ref> Byrnes had been "pushed out" of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled "that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves."<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249</ref>

Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, "Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&scp=130&sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers."<ref>"About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments." [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were "loaned" to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: "I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions." (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)</ref> Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.<ref>"To Elsie McKeough," Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37</ref> Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the "Hollywood Ten") [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19500703&id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110</ref>

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That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson<ref>Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)</ref> (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a "competent KGB source"),<ref>Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, "Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend," ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr "submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries." Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, "Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter," King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19510721&id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]</ref> forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.<ref>Panuch would testify that "...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'" As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, "it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department." [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15</ref>

−

State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with "McLean [sic], British Emb."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364</ref> Donald Maclean<ref>[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum</ref> was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent<ref>Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28]," Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)</ref> and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean]," ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008</ref> where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.<ref>"[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.]," The Spy Museum</ref> Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, "it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],<ref>Hayden B. Peake, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story]," ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]</ref> [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],<ref>[~~http~~://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], "Race for the Bomb" ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];</ref> [[Harry Gold|Gold]],<ref>Greg Barker, Director, "[~~http~~://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]" (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]</ref> [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],<ref>Rebecca Leung, "[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister]," CBS News, July 16, 2003</ref> and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]<ref>Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&hp&oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]</ref>—not to mention others who are still nameless."<ref>Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is "suggestive," writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] "evidently either knew or believed" that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote</ref>

+

State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with "McLean [sic], British Emb."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364</ref> Donald Maclean<ref>[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum</ref> was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent<ref>Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28]," Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)</ref> and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean]," ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008</ref> where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.<ref>"[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.]," The Spy Museum</ref> Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, "it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],<ref>Hayden B. Peake, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story]," ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]</ref> [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], "Race for the Bomb" ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];</ref> [[Harry Gold|Gold]],<ref>Greg Barker, Director, "[https://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]" (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]</ref> [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],<ref>Rebecca Leung, "[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister]," CBS News, July 16, 2003</ref> and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]<ref>Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&hp&oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]</ref>—not to mention others who are still nameless."<ref>Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is "suggestive," writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] "evidently either knew or believed" that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote</ref>

That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as "occupied territory," a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:

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Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify "any disloyal or subversive person" from federal service. Truman's actions "left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress," according to the journal of the National Archives. "Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]]."

−

In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref> Hiss became president—[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)—of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related<ref>Carroll Quigley, ''[~~http~~://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. & Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, "The Quigley Cult," ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)</ref> [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)</ref> which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as "a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives."<ref>[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)</ref>

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In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref> Hiss became president—[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)—of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related<ref>Carroll Quigley, ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. & Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, "The Quigley Cult," ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)</ref> [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)</ref> which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as "a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives."<ref>[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)</ref>

== House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==

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[[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,<ref>"Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers." David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org</ref> Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, "the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy."<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216</ref> The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted "an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury."<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322</ref> Hoover penned, "I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss."<ref>FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)</ref>

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Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called "Pumpkin Papers").<ref>National Archives and Records Administration, [~~http~~://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence ("Pumpkin Papers") used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the "Pumpkin Papers," and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)</ref> The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116</ref>

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Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called "Pumpkin Papers").<ref>National Archives and Records Administration, [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence ("Pumpkin Papers") used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the "Pumpkin Papers," and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)</ref> The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116</ref>

According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as "Felix," who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.

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The defense reverted to Hiss's original "insanity defense" (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”<ref>Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])—characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. "I never liked him. I knew him..." said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. "There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy." Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986</ref> So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model<ref>[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83</ref> to teach generations of law students.<ref>Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151</ref>

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Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”<ref>Timothy Naftali, “[~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6</ref> Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed "liberal" Daniel Hemel sums up:

+

Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”<ref>Timothy Naftali, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6</ref> Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed "liberal" Daniel Hemel sums up:

{{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense—[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}

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As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,<ref>Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240</ref> the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:

{{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}

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Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [~~http~~://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]<ref>''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, "I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him]." This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]" while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&site=wnews&client=wnews&proxystylesheet=wnews&output=xml_no_dtd&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&filter=p&getfields=wnnis&sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, "Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon]."</ref> in 1972. But the left "loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case" (and [~~http~~://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).<ref>George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310</ref> By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal<ref>Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000</ref> forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,<ref>Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630</ref> giving "some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575</ref> involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB." In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated "nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged]."

+

Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]<ref>''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, "I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him]." This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]" while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&site=wnews&client=wnews&proxystylesheet=wnews&output=xml_no_dtd&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&filter=p&getfields=wnnis&sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, "Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon]."</ref> in 1972. But the left "loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case" (and [https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).<ref>George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310</ref> By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal<ref>Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000</ref> forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,<ref>Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630</ref> giving "some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575</ref> involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB." In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated "nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged]."

With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45</ref> In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by "[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]"<ref>Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism—the "realization" of what he calls "'first-epoch' socialism" (that is, "neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']")—not in pursuit of "unfettered productivity" ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.</ref> Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&off=0&f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), "The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing," labeling Hiss's conviction "dubious," and suggesting that Nixon's "prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level" as "political demagoguery of the worst sort—unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank]."<ref>Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as "an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=9704&week=c&msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&user=&pw= able public servant]."</ref>

==Death==

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The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.<ref>"[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty." Edward A. Goedeken, "Social Science" (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128</ref> This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [~~http~~://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),<ref>Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82</ref> he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as "our agent."<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009</ref>

+

The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.<ref>"[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty." Edward A. Goedeken, "Social Science" (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128</ref> This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),<ref>Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82</ref> he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as "our agent."<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009</ref>

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The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996<ref>John Ehrman, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case]," ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10</ref> release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the "Ales" transmission of March 30, 1945.<ref>"For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground." R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]</ref> The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], "Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day." By then, "just about everyone conceded that he was guilty," reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, "that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [~~http~~://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s." Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.<ref>"The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'" Alex Kingsbury, "[~~http~~://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.]," ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009</ref>

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The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996<ref>John Ehrman, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case]," ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10</ref> release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the "Ales" transmission of March 30, 1945.<ref>"For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground." R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]</ref> The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], "Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day." By then, "just about everyone conceded that he was guilty," reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, "that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s." Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.<ref>"The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'" Alex Kingsbury, "[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.]," ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009</ref>

HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.<ref>Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.</ref> Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: "Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists," observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], "it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]]." Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, "Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it."<ref>Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, "The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers," ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])—who, "dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”—“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it." ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208</ref>

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* <cite id=refMark03>Eduard Mark, "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case]," ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64</cite>

* <cite id=refHiss89>Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246</cite>

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* <cite id=refBerresford92>John W. Berresford, "[~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide]," [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)</cite>

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* <cite id=refBerresford92>John W. Berresford, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide]," [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)</cite>

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* <cite id=refCohen93>Jacob Cohen, "Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss," ''[~~http~~://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)</cite>

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* <cite id=refCohen93>Jacob Cohen, "Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss," ''[https://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)</cite>

* <cite id=refRemnick86>David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31</cite></div>

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:* <cite id=refHUAC48-2R>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949</cite>

:* <cite id=refHUAC50.2>[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government—Part 2], 1950</cite>

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* [~~http~~://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]

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* [https://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]

:*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]

::* <cite id=refTruChron>Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]</cite>

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::* <cite id=refBentleyGJ>Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949</cite>

::* <cite id=refTrohan1970>Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970</cite>

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:* <cite id=refRJG06>Robert Justin Goldstein, "[~~http~~://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist]," ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)</cite>

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:* <cite id=refRJG06>Robert Justin Goldstein, "[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist]," ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)</cite>

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:* <cite id=refNARAcities>125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, "Big Bill" Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [~~http~~://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]</cite>

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:* <cite id=refNARAcities>125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, "Big Bill" Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]</cite>

* <cite id=refHissAppellate>''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)</cite>

* Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate

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* <cite id=refKriv39>Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper & Brothers, 1939)</cite>

* <cite id=refOSullivan07>Christopher D. O'Sullivan, "[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation]," ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587</cite>

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* <cite id=refYUNHiss>[~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)</cite>

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* <cite id=refYUNHiss>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)</cite>

* <cite id=refMHSL>[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society</cite>

* <cite id=refZeligs80>[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980</cite>

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* <cite id=refGuttenplan09>D.D. Guttenplan, "[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America]," ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009</cite>

* <cite id=refKlehr04>Harvey Klehr, "[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America]," ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004</cite>

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* <cite id=refHerman95>Arthur Herman, "[~~http~~://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow]," ''National Review'', February 11, 2005</cite>

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* <cite id=refHerman95>Arthur Herman, "[https://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow]," ''National Review'', February 11, 2005</cite>

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* <cite id=refNovak03>Robert D. Novak, "[~~http~~://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?]," ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)</cite>

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* <cite id=refNovak03>Robert D. Novak, "[https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?]," ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)</cite>

* <cite id=refGarvin04>Glenn Garvin, "[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism]," ''Reason'', April 2004</cite>

* <cite id=refRusher04>William A. Rusher, "[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed]," ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)</cite>

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* <cite id=refHornberger95>Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995</cite>

* <cite id=refMICA>[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art</cite>

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* <cite id=refBLS>[~~http~~://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor</cite><div>

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* <cite id=refBLS>[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor</cite><div>

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