Changes

==List of Roman Emperors==

==List of Roman Emperors==

Augustus was the first Emperor, leading a stable and peaceful Empire.  He cut the size of the military and reorganized it so the Empire would have about 300,000 men under arms, basically manning the borders, and extremely mobile.  He decided against expanding the Empire after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD and the loss the Romans incurred believing there was little to gain in spending great amounts of money and resources to conquer barbarians that could provide little in return.  His successors agreed with his policies, although they did from time to time make small expansions to the borders.  He undertook building projects and road construction that led to great improvements.

Augustus was the first Emperor, leading a stable and peaceful Empire.  He cut the size of the military and reorganized it so the Empire would have about 300,000 men under arms, basically manning the borders, and extremely mobile.  He decided against expanding the Empire after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD and the loss the Romans incurred believing there was little to gain in spending great amounts of money and resources to conquer Germania.  His successors agreed with his policies, although they did from time to time make small expansions to the borders.  He undertook building projects and road construction that led to great improvements.

[[File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|thumb|right|Augustus Caesar, the first emperor of the Roman Empire.]]

[[File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|thumb|right|Augustus Caesar, the first emperor of the Roman Empire.]]

* [[Augustus]] (Octavianus) ''(27 BC - 14 AD)''

* [[Augustus]] (Octavianus) ''(27 BC - 14 AD)''

* [[Jovian]] ''(363-364)''

* [[Jovian]] ''(363-364)''

The Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father [[Orestes]]) by his general, the Germanic chieftain [[Odoacer]], in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Ottoman Turks.

The final emperor to rule a united Western and Eastern Roman Empire was [[Theodosius I]] the Great ''(379-395)'', who made Christianity the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.

 

After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was now more or less permanently divided into Eastern and Western sections.  The Western section ended with the deposition of the child [[Romulus Augustulus]] (a puppet of his father [[Orestes]]) by his general, the Germanic chieftain [[Odoacer]], in 476.  However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]] until [[Constantine XI]] died in 1453, in the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Ottoman Turks.

==Roman Engineering==

==Roman Engineering==

#Economic stagnation—Roman wealth, especially in the west, deteriorated over time so that by the 4th century the barbarian tribes outside the Empire were often just as wealthy as the Empire itself.

#Economic stagnation—Roman wealth, especially in the west, deteriorated over time so that by the 4th century the barbarian tribes outside the Empire were often just as wealthy as the Empire itself.

#Barbarianism of the Roman military—Roman legions were populated more and more by barbarians and less and less by Romans, including many of the generals.  Over time the barbarians learned and were trained in Roman tactics as well so that the distinction between Romans and barbarian armies became blurred.  Near the end of the Empire, barbarian and mercenary armies had become an integral part of Roman military protection.

#Barbarianism of the Roman military—Roman legions were populated more and more by barbarians and less and less by Romans, including many of the generals.  Over time the barbarians learned and were trained in Roman tactics as well so that the distinction between Romans and barbarian armies became blurred.  Near the end of the Empire, barbarian and mercenary armies had become an integral part of Roman military protection.

#Military despotism—While the early Emperors still had to deal with the senate, later Emperors ruled through military strength alone.  Civil wars were common, especially during the age of 30 tyrants when the Empire was in a constant state of internal warfare and chaos. That the Empire didn't fall during this time is a testament to the ongoing discipline of their legions at that point in their history.[[File:Rome-barbarians.jpg|thumb|400px|Barbarian threat appears by 400 AD]]

#Military despotism—While the early Emperors required the support of the plebians, the Senate, and the military, later Emperors ruled through military strength alone.  Civil wars were common, especially during Crisis of the Third Century when the Empire was in a constant state of internal warfare and chaos. The Empire, however, did not fall during this period due to the efforts of Flavius Aurelianus, which proves the tenacity of the Roman leaders and state. [[File:Rome-barbarians.jpg|thumb|400px|Barbarian threat appears by 400 AD]]

#Military advances—Changes over centuries began to give cavalry a more prominent role than it had previously been capable of. In other words, the Roman legion (which was the mainstay of Roman power) lost some of its dominance.

#Military advances—Changes over centuries began to give cavalry a more prominent role than it had previously been capable of. The Roman legion, once composed of the old legionnaires with lorica hamata/segmentata with scutum and gladius, were now being replaced by the comitatenses and cataphracts. In other words, the old Roman legion was being forced to adapt to new and harder circumstances.

#The Roman Empire was always in danger of fall.  [[Spartacus]] and his army of freed slaves came close to overcoming Rome as did [[Hannibal]]. Eventually luck ran out for Rome.  

#The Roman Empire, like the Roman Republic before it was always in danger of fall.  [[Spartacus]] and his army of freed slaves came close to overcoming Rome as did [[Hannibal]]. Eventually luck ran out for Rome.  

      

      

From a societal standpoint it has been posited that immorality so weakened the spirit of the Empire that it was unable to stand firm against the Barbarians. Certainly poets such as [[Catullus]] and [[Juvenal]] describe many unnatural practices but that happened in the glory days, and did not carry over to the centuries of decline.  

From a societal standpoint it has been posited that immorality so weakened the spirit of the Empire that it was unable to stand firm against the Barbarians. Certainly poets such as [[Catullus]] and [[Juvenal]] describe many unnatural practices but that happened in the glory days, and did not carry over to the centuries of decline.  

Heather (2007) argues that the later empire was not failing, but remained wealthy and strong. The problem was that external enemies built up stronger, better organized armies, so that the fall was inevitable and was caused by external forces that Rome could not stop.  Heather, an expert on the Gauls, emphasizes their strengths.

Heather (2007) argues that the later empire was not failing, but remained wealthy and strong. The problem was that external enemies built up stronger, better organized armies, so that the fall was inevitable and was caused by external forces that Rome could not stop.  Heather, an expert on the Gauls, emphasizes their strengths.

Goldsworthy (2009) sees steady decline and rejects Heather's arguments that the later empire was prosperous or strong. The Persians and various barbarian tribes were not especially stronger, either in numbers or organization, than Rome. Instead Rome's greatest enemy was itself. The constant civil wars fought after Marcus Aurelius destabilized Roman society and weakened the borders, allowing otherwise weak enemies to exploit Roman instability.  Goldsworthy notes that senators were excluded from military command in ordder to strengthen the emperor, but this weakened the army. Tensions between the civil bureaucracy and the army, and the use of smaller and smaller units to prevent any opponent getting a power base reduced the empire's ability to quickly counter any foreign invasion. An increasing number of foreigners were allowed to occupy the land, thus depriving the West of needed tax revenue, which in turn weakened the army and bureaucracy, and so encouraging more infiltration and forced settlement and thus into a downward spiral.<ref>See  Adrian Goldsworthy, ''How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower'' (2009)</ref>

Goldsworthy (2009) sees steady decline and rejects Heather's arguments that the later empire was prosperous or strong. The Sassanid Persians and various barbarian tribes were not especially stronger, either in numbers or organization, than Rome. Instead Rome's greatest enemy was itself. The constant civil wars fought after Marcus Aurelius destabilized Roman society and weakened the borders, allowing otherwise weak enemies to exploit Roman instability.  Goldsworthy notes that senators were excluded from military command in order to strengthen the emperor, but this weakened the army. Tensions between the civil bureaucracy and the army, and the use of smaller and smaller units to prevent any opponent getting a power base reduced the empire's ability to quickly counter any foreign invasion. An increasing number of foreigners were allowed to occupy the land, thus depriving the West of needed tax revenue, which in turn weakened the army and bureaucracy, and so encouraging more infiltration and forced settlement and thus into a downward spiral.<ref>See  Adrian Goldsworthy, ''How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower'' (2009)</ref>

=== Fall ===

=== Fall ===