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[[File:640px-Coligny-closeup.jpg|thumb|The Coligny calendar is a Celtic calendar found in the French town of Coligny in 1897.]]'''Samhain''' is an Irish holiday observed on November 1, equivalent to [[All Saints' Day]]. On the Celtic calendar, Samhain was the first day of winter. Popular history associates Samhain with [[Halloween]], although Halloween is observed on October 31 and arose separately in 18th century Scotland.

[[File:640px-Coligny-closeup.jpg|thumb|The Coligny calendar is a Celtic calendar found in the French town of Coligny in 1897.]]'''Samhain''' is an Irish holiday observed on November 1, equivalent to [[All Saints' Day]]. On the Celtic calendar, Samhain was the first day of winter. Popular history associates Samhain with [[Halloween]], although Halloween is observed on October 31 and arose separately in 18th century Scotland.

In modern Gaelic, ''Samhain'' refers to the month of November.<ref>Mark, Colin, ''The Gaelic–English Dictionary'' (2003).</ref> Traditionally, it referred to All Saints Day.<ref name="McBain"/>

In modern Gaelic, ''Samhain'' refers to the month of November.<ref>Mark, Colin, ''The Gaelic–English Dictionary'' (2003).</ref> Traditionally, it referred to All Saints Day.<ref name="McBain">MacBain, Alexander, ''An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language'', Gairm Publications, Glasgow, 1982 (reprint of 1911 edition). "'''samhuinn''', Hallow-tide, Ir. [samhain], E.Ir. [samuin], [samain], [samfhuin]: usually regarded as for [*sam-fuin], "summer-end", from [sam], summer, and [fuin], end, sunset."</ref>

The Celtic year was divided into halves by the holidays Samhain and Beltaine (May 1). These dates were once part of a pagan lunisolar calendar. Even in the earliest surviving accounts, both dates have already transferred to the Christian, or [[Julian calendar|Julian, calendar]].

The Celtic year was divided into halves by the holidays Samhain and Beltaine (May 1). These dates were once part of a pagan lunisolar calendar. Even in the earliest surviving accounts, both dates have already transferred to the Christian, or [[Julian calendar|Julian, calendar]].

== Etymology ==

== Etymology ==

Samhain is derived from Old Irish ''Samain'' and Proto-Celtic ''*samani'', meaning "assembly."<ref>Stokes, Whitley (1907). "Irish etyma". ''Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung.'' 40: 245.<br/>Matasović, Ranko, ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'', Brill, 2009. "GOID MIr. ''samain'' (assembly on the) 1st of November [i f]"</ref> In pagan times, the Feast of Tara (''feis Temrach'') met around the time of Samhain.<ref name="Cormac">"[https://sejh.pagesperso-orange.fr/keltia/version-en/echtraCormacB.html The Irish Ordeals, Cormac's Adventure in the Land of Promise, and the Decision as to Cormac's Sword.]"</ref> The medieval tale "The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain" claims that ''Samain'' means "summer's end" (''sam-fuin'').<ref name="Leahy"/> But this derivation is not accepted by modern scholars.

The word Samhain is derived from Old Irish ''Samain'' and Proto-Celtic ''*samani'', meaning "assembly."<ref>Stokes, Whitley (1907). "Irish etyma". ''Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung.'' 40: 245.<br/>Matasović, Ranko, ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'', Brill, 2009. "GOID MIr. ''samain'' (assembly on the) 1st of November [i f]"</ref> In pagan times, the Feast of Tara (''feis Temrach'') met around the time of Samhain.<ref name="Cormac">"[https://sejh.pagesperso-orange.fr/keltia/version-en/echtraCormacB.html The Irish Ordeals, Cormac's Adventure in the Land of Promise, and the Decision as to Cormac's Sword.]," Trans. Whitley Stokes.</ref>

 

The medieval tale "The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain" claims that ''Samain'' means "summer's end" (''sam-fuin'').<ref name="Leahy"/> But this derivation is not accepted by modern scholars.

''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban'', written in AD 540‐615, is the oldest source to describe November 1 as the first day of winter. November 1 was Christianized as All Saints Day in the eighth century. The earliest mention of Samhain is found in the ninth century text ''Felire Oengusso.'' It spells the word as ''Samain.''<ref>“Rule 7: … up to the beginning of winter, that is, the first of November.” ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban''.<br/>“Lonán, Colmán, Cronán with their bright sunny following the hosts of Hilarius sure multitudinous ennoble stormy All‐Saints’ day [Samain].” ''Felire Oengusso.''</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan, Bernard, "[https://www.academia.edu/30803038/The_semantic_shift_of_Samain_from_Summer_to_Winter The semantic shift of Samain from Summer to Winter]".</ref>

''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban'', written in AD 540‐615, is the oldest source to describe November 1 as the first day of winter. November 1 was Christianized as All Saints Day in the eighth century. The earliest mention of Samhain is found in the ninth century text ''Felire Oengusso.'' It spells the word as ''Samain.''<ref>“Rule 7: … up to the beginning of winter, that is, the first of November.” ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban''.<br/>“Lonán, Colmán, Cronán with their bright sunny following the hosts of Hilarius sure multitudinous ennoble stormy All‐Saints’ day [Samain].” ''Felire Oengusso.''</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan, Bernard, "[https://www.academia.edu/30803038/The_semantic_shift_of_Samain_from_Summer_to_Winter The semantic shift of Samain from Summer to Winter]".</ref>

The earliest surviving discussion of Samhain is in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. These tales are set in the days when Connor ruled Ulster as king in the first century BC. They were composed in the tenth or eleventh centuries.

The earliest surviving discussion of Samhain is in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. These tales are set in the days when Connor ruled Ulster as king in the first century BC. They were composed in the tenth or eleventh centuries.

"The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain" portrays Samhain as a harvest festival:

"The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain" portrays Samhain as a harvest festival:{{cquote|EVERY year the men of Ulster were accustomed to hold festival together; and the time when they held it was for three days before Samhain, the Summer-End, and for three days after that day, and upon Samhain itself. And the time that is spoken of is that when the men of Ulster were in the Plain of Murthemne, and there they used to keep that festival every year; nor was there an thing in the world that they would do at that time except sports, and marketings, and splendours, and pomps, and feasting and eating; and it is from that custom of theirs that the Festival of the Samhain has descended, that is now held throughout the whole of Ireland.<ref name="Leahy">"[http://www.luminarium.org/mythology/ireland/cuchulainnsick.htm The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain]." The translation is from ''Heroic Romances of Ireland.'' Vol I. A. H. Leahy, ed. London: David Nutt, 1905. pp. 57-85.</ref>}}That Ulstermen are portrayed as establishing Samhain supports the view that Samhain existed as a date on the calendar before a festival was established, as has already been argued. In the passage above, the word ''samfuin'' is translated as "Samhain, the Summer-End."

{{cquote|EVERY year the men of Ulster were accustomed to hold festival together; and the time when they held it was for three days before Samhain, the Summer-End, and for three days after that day, and upon Samhain itself. And the time that is spoken of is that when the men of Ulster were in the Plain of Murthemne, and there they used to keep that festival every year; nor was there an thing in the world that they would do at that time except sports, and marketings, and splendours, and pomps, and feasting and eating; and it is from that custom of theirs that the Festival of the Samhain has descended, that is now held throughout the whole of Ireland.<ref name="Leahy">"[http://www.luminarium.org/mythology/ireland/cuchulainnsick.htm The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain]." The translation is from ''Heroic Romances of Ireland.'' Vol I. A. H. Leahy, ed.

London: David Nutt, 1905. pp. 57-85.</ref>}}That Ulstermen are portrayed as establishing Samhain supports the view that Samhain existed as a date on the calendar before a festival was established, as has already been argued. In Gaelic, the holiday is given as ''samfuin'' rather than as ''Samain.'' In the passage above, this word is translated as "Samhain, the Summer-End."

While others partied, Ulster hero Cuchulain was delirious and received an extended vision of ''Mag Mell'', the Plain of Delight, a Celtic version the [[Elysian Fields | Elysian fields]].

While others partied, Ulster hero Cuchulain was delirious and received an extended vision of ''Mag Mell'', the Plain of Delight, a Celtic version the [[Elysian Fields | Elysian fields]].

The twelfth century legend ''Cormac's Adventure'' portrays the Feast of Tara (''feis Temrach'') as a parliamentary body that met for seven days every seven years around the time of Samhain:{{cquote|Three preeminent assemblies used to be held at that time, namely, the Feast of Tara on Allhallowtide - for that was the Easter of the heathen, and all the men of Erin were at that meeting, helping the king of Erin to hold it - and the Fair of Tailtiu at Lammas, and the Great Meeting of Uisnech on Mayday.<ref name="Cormac">"[https://sejh.pagesperso-orange.fr/keltia/version-en/echtraCormacB.html The Irish Ordeals, Cormac's Adventure in the Land of Promise, and the Decision as to Cormac's Sword.]"</ref> The feast featured the king having relations with a local goddess. The last such feast was held in 560. It crowned Diarmait mac Cerbaill, the last pagan high king.<ref>MacKillop, James, "[https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095716195 Diarmait mac Cerbaill]," ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology,'' Oxford, 2004</ref>

The holiday is also discussed in the "Wooing of Emer," another tale in the Ulster Cycle. As Emer tells Cuchulain: "two divisions were formerly on the year,...summer from Beltaine (the first of May), and winter from Samuin to Beltaine."<ref name="Emer">"[http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/emer.html The Wooing Of Emer]," Translated by Kuno Meyer.</ref> So Cuchulain lives in a Julian calendar world in which the Celtic calendar "formerly on the year" needs to be explained.

The holiday is also discussed in the "Wooing of Emer," another tale in the Ulster Cycle. As Emer tells Cuchulain: "two divisions were formerly on the year,...summer from Beltaine (the first of May), and winter from Samuin to Beltaine."<ref name="Emer">"[http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/emer.html The Wooing Of Emer]," Translated by Kuno Meyer.</ref> So Cuchulain lives in a Julian calendar world in which the Celtic calendar "formerly on the year" needs to be explained.

The twelfth century legend ''Cormac's Adventure'' portrays the Feast of Tara (''feis Temrach'') as a parliamentary body that met for seven days every seven years around the time of Samhain:{{cquote|Now rules and laws and duties were ordained at that meeting, and the men of Erin's councils were determined. Three preeminent assemblies used to be held at that time, namely, the Feast of Tara on Allhallowtide - for that was the Easter of the heathen, and all the men of Erin were at that meeting, helping the king of Erin to hold it - and the Fair of Tailtiu at Lammas, and the Great Meeting of Uisnech on Mayday. Seven years lasted the preparation for the Feast of Tara, and still at the end of seven years then used to be a convention of all the men of Erin at the Feast of Tara, and there they would determine jubilee, namely, the Rule of Seven Years from one Feast of Tara to another.<ref name="Cormac"/>}} The feast featured the king having relations with a local goddess. The last such feast was held in 560. It crowned Diarmait mac Cerbaill, the last pagan high king.<ref>MacKillop, James, "[https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095716195 Diarmait mac Cerbaill]," ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology,'' Oxford, 2004</ref>

==References==

==References==