Changes

==Economic conditions==

==Economic conditions==

The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the [[Panic of 1893]]—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The [[Panic of 1907]] was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907-1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System. Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency.  

The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the [[Panic of 1893]]—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The [[Panic of 1907]] was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907–1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System. Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency.  

==Progressive Politics==

==Progressive Politics==

===TR moves left 1907-1912===

===TR moves left 1907-1912===

By 1907-08, his last two years in office, Roosevelt was increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its close ties to the Republican party in every large state. Roosevelt, freely lambasting his critics and conservative judges, called on Congress to enact a series of radical new laws that would regulate the economy. He wanted a national incorporation law (all corporations had state charters, which varied greatly state by state), a federal income tax and inheritance tax (both targeted on the rich), limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes (injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business), an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws), an eight-hour law for federal employees, a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and, finally, campaign reform laws.  None of his agenda was enacted, and Roosevelt carried over the ideas into the 1912 campaign. Roosevelt's increasingly radical stance proved popular in the Midwest and Pacific Coast, and among farmers, teachers, clergymen, clerical workers and some proprietors, but was appeared as divisive and unnecessary to eastern Republicans, corporate executives, lawyers, party workers, and Congressmen.

By 1907–08, his last two years in office, Roosevelt was increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its close ties to the Republican party in every large state. Roosevelt, freely lambasting his critics and conservative judges, called on Congress to enact a series of radical new laws that would regulate the economy. He wanted a national incorporation law (all corporations had state charters, which varied greatly state by state), a federal income tax and inheritance tax (both targeted on the rich), limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes (injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business), an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws), an eight-hour law for federal employees, a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and, finally, campaign reform laws.  None of his agenda was enacted, and Roosevelt carried over the ideas into the 1912 campaign. Roosevelt's increasingly radical stance proved popular in the Midwest and Pacific Coast, and among farmers, teachers, clergymen, clerical workers and some proprietors, but was appeared as divisive and unnecessary to eastern Republicans, corporate executives, lawyers, party workers, and Congressmen.

===Taft elected===

===Taft elected===

===Bull Moose party disintegrates===

===Bull Moose party disintegrates===

Roosevelt had scored a second-place finish, but he trailed so far behind Wilson that everyone realized his party would never win the White House. With the poor performance at state and local levels in 1912, the steady defection of top supporters, the failure to attract any new support, and a pathetic showing in 1914, the Bull Moose party disintegrated. Some leaders, such as [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]] of Chicago, supported Wilson in 1916.  Most followed Roosevelt back into the GOP, which nominated [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. Hughes had a progressive record in New York, and sat out the divisive years of 1910-1916 on the Supreme Court, so he was acceptable to all factions. The ironies were many: Taft had been Roosevelt's hand-picked successor in 1908 and the split between the two men was personal and bitter; if Roosevelt had just waited he probably would have been nominated and elected in 1916; his schism allowed the conservatives to gain control of the Republican party and left Roosevelt and his followers drifting in the wilderness.  Out in California, Johnson snubbed Hughes in 1916 and threw the election to Wilson. During the Great War, Roosevelt himself moved to the right, stressing Americanism and denouncing Wilson's weak military policies. He probably would have been the 1920 GOP nominee, but he had aged rapidly and died early in 1919, aged 60, from the effects of a tropical disease. Taft went on to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the position he wanted far more than President.  Although Franklin Roosevelt attracted Ickes and a few other prominent Bull Moosers to his cause in the 1930s, two-thirds of those still politically active rejected the New Deal.

Roosevelt had scored a second-place finish, but he trailed so far behind Wilson that everyone realized his party would never win the White House. With the poor performance at state and local levels in 1912, the steady defection of top supporters, the failure to attract any new support, and a pathetic showing in 1914, the Bull Moose party disintegrated. Some leaders, such as [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]] of Chicago, supported Wilson in 1916.  Most followed Roosevelt back into the GOP, which nominated [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. Hughes had a progressive record in New York, and sat out the divisive years of 1910–1916 on the Supreme Court, so he was acceptable to all factions. The ironies were many: Taft had been Roosevelt's hand-picked successor in 1908 and the split between the two men was personal and bitter; if Roosevelt had just waited he probably would have been nominated and elected in 1916; his schism allowed the conservatives to gain control of the Republican party and left Roosevelt and his followers drifting in the wilderness.  Out in California, Johnson snubbed Hughes in 1916 and threw the election to Wilson. During the Great War, Roosevelt himself moved to the right, stressing Americanism and denouncing Wilson's weak military policies. He probably would have been the 1920 GOP nominee, but he had aged rapidly and died early in 1919, aged 60, from the effects of a tropical disease. Taft went on to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the position he wanted far more than President.  Although Franklin Roosevelt attracted Ickes and a few other prominent Bull Moosers to his cause in the 1930s, two-thirds of those still politically active rejected the New Deal.

==End of the Era==

==End of the Era==

While there is not full agreement as to when the Progressive Era began, the end of the Progressive Era is always noted in the same year: 1920.  As progressive author and founder of [[The New Republic]] [[Herbert Croly]] noted at the time, the "eclipse" of "progressivism as an effective force in American politics" was the "chief distinguishing aspect" of the 1920 election.<ref>[https://newrepublic.com/article/78969/the-eclipse-progressivism The Eclipse of Progressivism]</ref>

While there is not full agreement as to when the Progressive Era began, the end of the Progressive Era is always noted in the same year: 1920.  As progressive author and founder of [[The New Republic]] [[Herbert Croly]] noted at the time, the "eclipse" of "progressivism as an effective force in American politics" was the "chief distinguishing aspect" of the 1920 election.<ref>[https://newrepublic.com/article/78969/the-eclipse-progressivism The Eclipse of Progressivism]</ref>

But while the era ended with the election in 1920, progressivism would make a roaring comeback in the 1930s under the name of "liberalism", having had its [[Progressivism#Name_Change|label changed]] by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]].

But while the era ended with the election in 1920, progressivism would make a roaring comeback in the 1930s under the name of "liberalism", having had its [[Progressivism#Name Change|label changed]] by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]].

==Notable Progressive political leaders==

==Notable Progressive political leaders==

*[[William Howard Taft]], President and Chief Justice; Washington

*[[William Howard Taft]], President and Chief Justice; Washington

*[[William S. U'Ren]], Oregon

*[[William S. U'Ren]], Oregon

*[[Booker T. Washington]], Tuskeegee, AL; powerful leader of the black community

*[[Booker T. Washington]], Tuskegee, AL; powerful leader of the black community

*[[William Allen White]], newspaper editor; Emporia, Kansas

*[[William Allen White]], newspaper editor; Emporia, Kansas

*[[Woodrow Wilson]], political scientist; president; Princeton NJ

*[[Woodrow Wilson]], political scientist; president; Princeton NJ

* Lasch, Christopher. ''The True and Only Heaven: Progress and its Critics'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/True-Only-Heaven-Progress-Critics/dp/0393307956/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196634634&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Lasch, Christopher. ''The True and Only Heaven: Progress and its Critics'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/True-Only-Heaven-Progress-Critics/dp/0393307956/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196634634&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* McGerr, Michael. ''A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870-1920'' (2003)

* McGerr, Michael. ''A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870-1920'' (2003)

*Mowry, George. ''The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900-1912.'' (1954) general survey of era

*Mowry, George. ''The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912.'' (1954) general survey of era

* [[Burl Noggle|Noggle, Burl]]. "The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 53, No. 2. (Sep., 1966), pp. 299-314. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723%28196609%2953%3A2%3C299%3ATTANHF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]

* [[Burl Noggle|Noggle, Burl]]. "The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 53, No. 2. (Sep., 1966), pp. 299-314. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723%28196609%2953%3A2%3C299%3ATTANHF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]

* Perry, Elisabeth Israels and Karen Manners Smith, eds. ''The Gilded Age & Progressive Era: A Student Companion'' (2006)  

* Perry, Elisabeth Israels and Karen Manners Smith, eds. ''The Gilded Age & Progressive Era: A Student Companion'' (2006)