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Philosophy in the West begins with [[Thales]] of Miletus, who was the first astronomer in recorded history to accurately predict a solar eclipse.  The Milesian School founded by Thales included [[Anaxagoras]], [[Anaximander]], and [[Anaximenes]]. Closely related is the work of [[Heraclitus]] of Ephesus.  Around the time of Heraclitus, [[Parmenides]] of Elea, with his pupil [[Zeno]], raised some serious objections to the project of [[Milesian philosophy]].  These objections laid the groundwork for [[Socrates]] and his pupil [[Plato]], as well as the Atomists, [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]].

Philosophy in the West begins with [[Thales]] of Miletus, who was the first astronomer in recorded history to accurately predict a solar eclipse.  The Milesian School founded by Thales included [[Anaxagoras]], [[Anaximander]], and [[Anaximenes]]. Closely related is the work of [[Heraclitus]] of Ephesus.  Around the time of Heraclitus, [[Parmenides]] of Elea, with his pupil [[Zeno]], raised some serious objections to the project of [[Milesian philosophy]].  These objections laid the groundwork for [[Socrates]] and his pupil [[Plato]], as well as the Atomists, [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]].

== The Twentieth Century ==

=== The Twentieth Century ===

This century has offered a wide diversity of orientations. The best known are the French school of [[Existentialism]], the German study of [[Phenomenology]], the [[Positivism|Positivists]] of the Vienna Circle, and the post-Positivist Analytic movement.  

This century has offered a wide diversity of orientations. The best known are the French school of [[Existentialism]], the German study of [[Phenomenology]], the [[Positivism|Positivists]] of the Vienna Circle, and the post-Positivist Analytic movement.

=== Existentialism ===

==== Existentialists ====

[[Henri Bergsson]](1859 – 1941), 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature,

[[Henri Bergsson]](1859 – 1941) and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905 – 1980) are probably the best-known examples of this school.

French [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905 – 1980), philosopher, playwright, and novelist, that was the leading exponent of [[existentialism]], are good examples.

=== Phenomenology and Hermeneutics ===

==== Phenomenology and Hermeneutics ====

[[Edmund Husserl]] (1859 – 1938) founder of [[phenomenology]], [[Martin Heidegger]] (1889 – 1976), and his follower, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]]

[[Edmund Husserl]] (1859 – 1938) founder of [[phenomenology]], [[Martin Heidegger]] (1889 – 1976), and [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] (1900-2002) are the core writers here.

=== Positivists ===

==== Positivists ====

The [[Vienna Circle]] philosophers, most notably [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Herbert Feigl]], [[Kurt Godel]], and [[Otto Neurath]].

The [[Vienna Circle]] philosophers, most notably [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Herbert Feigl]], [[Kurt Godel]], and [[Otto Neurath]] were the first positivists, but this tradition, unlike [[Existentialism]] and [[Phenomenology]] is no longer an active research program.

=== Others ===

==== Others ====

the Frankfurt School , a group of researchers associated with the Institut für Sozialforschung (Institute of Social Research), founded in 1923 as an autonomous division of the University of Frankfurt; [[Structuralism]], theory that uses culturally interconnected signs to reconstruct systems of relationships rather than studying isolated, material things in themselves. <ref> [http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Philosophhy Philosophy] </ref>

The Frankfurt School , a group of researchers associated with the Institut für Sozialforschung (Institute of Social Research), founded in 1923 as an autonomous division of the University of Frankfurt; [[Structuralism]], theory that uses culturally interconnected signs to reconstruct systems of relationships rather than studying isolated, material things in themselves. <ref> [http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Philosophhy Philosophy] </ref>

=== American Philosophy ===

=== American Philosophy ===

Some scholars have said that American philosophers’ focus on the interconnections of theory and practice, on experience and community, but different concerns and themes have waxed or waned at different times; nevertheless American Philosophy can  be seen as both reflecting and shaping collective American identity over the history of the nation. <ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/american.htm American Philosophy]</ref>

Some scholars have said that American philosophers’ focus on the interconnections of theory and practice, on experience and community, but different concerns and themes have waxed or waned at different times.  Through the middle of the 20th century, at least, American philosophers were actively engaged in shaping and reflecting the development of American culture.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/american.htm American Philosophy]</ref>

Main figures are: [[Charles Peirce]] (1839-1914), [[William James]] (1842-1910), and [[John Dewey]] (1859-1952) in [[pragmatism]]. Also important are the works of: Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947), [[George Santayana]] (1863-1952), Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), C. Wright Mills (1916-1962), Charles Hartshorne (1897-2000) and W. V. Quine, (Willard Van Orman Quine) (1908–2000).

Main figures are: [[Charles Peirce]] (1839-1914), [[William James]] (1842-1910), [[John Dewey]] (1859-1952), and [[Richard Rorty]] (1931-2007).

Remarkable is John Rawls (1921 - 2002) (political and moral philosophy) author of ''A Theory of Justice'' (1971), ''Political Liberalism'' (1993), ''The Law of Peoples'' (1999), and ''Justice as Fairness: A Restatement'' (2001).

 

 

 

 

 

Especially well-known to non-philosophers is John Rawls (1921 - 2002) (political and moral philosophy) author of ''A Theory of Justice'' (1971), ''Political Liberalism'' (1993), ''The Law of Peoples'' (1999), and ''Justice as Fairness: A Restatement'' (2001).

== See also ==

== See also ==