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General of the Army '''Dwight David ("Ike") Eisenhower''' (1890-1969) was a career soldier who was the top Allied commander in Europe in [[World War II]], and who later served as the 34th [[President of the United States of America]].  

General of the Army '''Dwight David ("Ike") Eisenhower''' (1890-1969) was a career soldier who was the top Allied commander in Europe in [[World War II]], and who later served as the 34th [[President of the United States of America]].  

(1953-1961).<ref>"General of the Army," a peculiarly American military rank, is a 5-star general, comparable in rank to field marshall; there have been only four in history. </ref>    He first commanded Allied (British and American) troops invading North Africa in 1942 and Italy 1943, then became the Supreme Commander of the forces that invaded Normandy on [[D-Day]], June 6, 1944, and defeated the Germans in the West.

(1953-1961).<ref>"General of the Army," a peculiarly American military rank, is a 5-star general, comparable in rank to field marshal; there have been only four in history. </ref>    He first commanded Allied (British and American) troops invading North Africa in 1942 and Italy 1943, then became the Supreme Commander of the forces that invaded Normandy on [[D-Day]], June 6, 1944, and defeated the Germans in the West.

As the great American hero of the war, both parties wanted him as a presidential candidate. He kept out of politics until 1952, when he defeated the isolationist Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] for the [[U.S. Republican Party, history|Republican nomination]] and was elected by a landslide. As president he continued what was left of the New Deal and expanded Social Security, kept the containment policy in the [[Cold War]], ended the [[Korean War]], sponsored the [[Interstate Highway System]], signed the first civil rights bill in 82 years, and promoted moderate domestic policies known as "dynamic [[American conservatism|conservatism]]".  He issued no stirring call to arms. Far from expanding the power of the presidency, he tried to reduce it. He launched no great moral crusade, nor did he engage in an idealistic pursuit of some overriding national goal. Critics led by Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]] charged that Eisenhower was quite content to preside over a fat, happy, satisfied nation that devoted itself to the good life. Eisenhower largely ignored partisan politics, leaving that to his Vice President [[Richard Nixon]], who was defeated in 1960 by Kennedy when he tried to run on the achievements of the Eisenhower administration.

As the great American hero of the war, both parties wanted him as a presidential candidate. He kept out of politics until 1952, when he defeated the isolationist Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] for the [[U.S. Republican Party, history|Republican nomination]] and was elected by a landslide. As president he continued what was left of the New Deal and expanded Social Security, kept the containment policy in the [[Cold War]], ended the [[Korean War]], sponsored the [[Interstate Highway System]], signed the first civil rights bill in 82 years, and promoted moderate domestic policies known as "dynamic [[American conservatism|conservatism]]".  He issued no stirring call to arms. Far from expanding the power of the presidency, he tried to reduce it. He launched no great moral crusade, nor did he engage in an idealistic pursuit of some overriding national goal. Critics led by Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]] charged that Eisenhower was quite content to preside over a fat, happy, satisfied nation that devoted itself to the good life. Eisenhower largely ignored partisan politics, leaving that to his Vice President [[Richard Nixon]], who was defeated in 1960 by Kennedy when he tried to run on the achievements of the Eisenhower administration.

Eisenhower crusaded against the multiple failures of the Truman administration at home and abroad, summed up as "Communism, Korea and Corruption."  His campaign made heavy use of the catchy slogan "I Like Ike"; it became an animated TV commercial produced by [[Roy Disney]] and the Citizens for Eisenhower-Nixon <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/Eisenhow1952|title=Internet archive, Eisenhower Campaign Spots|accessdate=2007-09-11|date=1952}}</ref>.  

Eisenhower crusaded against the multiple failures of the Truman administration at home and abroad, summed up as "Communism, Korea and Corruption."  His campaign made heavy use of the catchy slogan "I Like Ike"; it became an animated TV commercial produced by [[Roy Disney]] and the Citizens for Eisenhower-Nixon <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/Eisenhow1952|title=Internet archive, Eisenhower Campaign Spots|accessdate=2007-09-11|date=1952}}</ref>.  

Truman's popularity had collapsed because of the failure to end the Korean war. Late in the campaign Eisenhower electrified the nation by promising "I Shall Go to Korea" (and thus promising to end the war quickly). This speech is one of the rare instances when a single address is credited with having a decisive effect upon a presidential election. Though Eisenhower's personal stature seemed to validate the promise of his declaration, the public response additionally derived from four elements that formed a major portion of the conceptual, emotional, and interpretive manner by which voters in 1952 perceived and acted upon their world: 1) the Cold War discourse as it had been practiced from 1946 to 1952, making it the nation's greatest challenge; 2) the foreign policy debate discourse, especially as it related to involvement in Asia; 3) the Korean War discourse as practiced from 1950 to 1952, in which the GOP was free to denounce Truman because Congress had never been asked to approve; and 4) the discourse of Eisenhower from 1942 to 1952, portaying the joyful warrior, particularly the 1952 campaign discourse featuring an appeal to character. Because of this complex context, the speech was a decisive event. Once in office Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons unless the Chinese came to terms on the issue of prisoner exchange, which they promptly did.<ref>Martin J. Medhurst, "Text and Context in the 1952 Presidential Campaign: Eisenhower's 'I Shall Go to Korea' Speech" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (2000) 30(3): 464-484. Issn: 0360-4918 [http://www.questia.com/read/5001083440 online edition]</ref>

Truman's popularity had collapsed because of the failure to end the Korean war. Late in the campaign Eisenhower electrified the nation by promising "I Shall Go to Korea" (and thus promising to end the war quickly). This speech is one of the rare instances when a single address is credited with having a decisive effect upon a presidential election. Though Eisenhower's personal stature seemed to validate the promise of his declaration, the public response additionally derived from four elements that formed a major portion of the conceptual, emotional, and interpretive manner by which voters in 1952 perceived and acted upon their world: 1) the Cold War discourse as it had been practiced from 1946 to 1952, making it the nation's greatest challenge; 2) the foreign policy debate discourse, especially as it related to involvement in Asia; 3) the Korean War discourse as practiced from 1950 to 1952, in which the GOP was free to denounce Truman because Congress had never been asked to approve; and 4) the discourse of Eisenhower from 1942 to 1952, portraying the joyful warrior, particularly the 1952 campaign discourse featuring an appeal to character. Because of this complex context, the speech was a decisive event. Once in office Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons unless the Chinese came to terms on the issue of prisoner exchange, which they promptly did.<ref>Martin J. Medhurst, "Text and Context in the 1952 Presidential Campaign: Eisenhower's 'I Shall Go to Korea' Speech" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (2000) 30(3): 464-484. Issn: 0360-4918 [http://www.questia.com/read/5001083440 online edition]</ref>

Viewing the limited war in Korea as a mistake, Eisenhower believed that American national security and containment of Communist expansion could best be achieved through nuclear deterrence and the utilization of other assets, such as negotiations, psychological warfare and economic aid.  Eisenhower worried that excessive defense spending would weaken the economy in the long-run, and thus be counterproductive. His "New Look" strategy economized by cutting back on Army divisions (much to the chagrin of the soldiers), and emphasizing instead nuclear weapons, which gave "more bang for the buck."<ref>Saki Dockrill, "Dealing with Soviet Power and Influence: Eisenhower's Management of U.S. National Security." ''Diplomatic History'' (2000) 24(2): 345-352. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

Viewing the limited war in Korea as a mistake, Eisenhower believed that American national security and containment of Communist expansion could best be achieved through nuclear deterrence and the utilization of other assets, such as negotiations, psychological warfare and economic aid.  Eisenhower worried that excessive defense spending would weaken the economy in the long-run, and thus be counterproductive. His "New Look" strategy economized by cutting back on Army divisions (much to the chagrin of the soldiers), and emphasizing instead nuclear weapons, which gave "more bang for the buck."<ref>Saki Dockrill, "Dealing with Soviet Power and Influence: Eisenhower's Management of U.S. National Security." ''Diplomatic History'' (2000) 24(2): 345-352. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

During his first three years as President, Eisenhower cut the federal budget, largely by controlling defense expenditures. By nature a fiscal conservative, he had no patience for corporate contractors' insistence that America needed ever more defense systems, even when the point ewas made by his Secretary of Defense, [[Charles E. Wilson]], a former CEO of [[General Motors]].  Wilson was ridiculed by Democrats for his garbled statement, "I thought that what was good for our country was good for General Motors and vice versa." (He meant to say what was bad for the country was bad for General Motors). Wilson proposed enormous Pentagon budget requests that Eisenhower slashed back. Rhe number of uniformed personnel dropped from 3.6 million in 1953 to 2.5 million in 1960; another 300,000 civilian jobs in the Defense department were ended. The overall military budget dropped from $43.8 billion in 1953 to $41.3 billion in 1960, or from 12.0% of GDP to 8.2%. In effect Eisenhower cut the military  by 30%.

During his first three years as President, Eisenhower cut the federal budget, largely by controlling defense expenditures. By nature a fiscal conservative, he had no patience for corporate contractors' insistence that America needed ever more defense systems, even when the point was made by his Secretary of Defense, [[Charles E. Wilson]], a former CEO of [[General Motors]].  Wilson was ridiculed by Democrats for his garbled statement, "I thought that what was good for our country was good for General Motors and vice versa." (He meant to say what was bad for the country was bad for General Motors). Wilson proposed enormous Pentagon budget requests that Eisenhower slashed back. The number of uniformed personnel dropped from 3.6 million in 1953 to 2.5 million in 1960; another 300,000 civilian jobs in the Defense department were ended. The overall military budget dropped from $43.8 billion in 1953 to $41.3 billion in 1960, or from 12.0% of GDP to 8.2%. In effect Eisenhower cut the military  by 30%.

Eisenhower rejected the policy of limited war and use of tactical nuclear weapons to the strategic menu of ways to deal with the Communist threat, and instead adopted a new strategy of "massive resistance" whereby a small war with the Soviet Union would immediately turn into a major nuclear war. He knew the U.S. had substantial nuclear superiority.  The effect was to deter both sides from any action that might escalate tensions into a small war. Eisenhower thus avoided World War III.   

Eisenhower rejected the policy of limited war and use of tactical nuclear weapons to the strategic menu of ways to deal with the Communist threat, and instead adopted a new strategy of "massive resistance" whereby a small war with the Soviet Union would immediately turn into a major nuclear war. He knew the U.S. had substantial nuclear superiority.  The effect was to deter both sides from any action that might escalate tensions into a small war. Eisenhower thus avoided World War III.   

The "Eisenhower Era", 1953-1963, marked a decade of peace and prosperity, with an end to the bitter conflicts regarding class and ideology that marked the 1940s, and before the even more violent and bitter years of the 1960s.  People look back with nostalgia, and gratitude for the man who kept the peace and quiet.  

The "Eisenhower Era", 1953-1963, marked a decade of peace and prosperity, with an end to the bitter conflicts regarding class and ideology that marked the 1940s, and before the even more violent and bitter years of the 1960s.  People look back with nostalgia, and gratitude for the man who kept the peace and quiet.  

===Eisenhower Library===

===Eisenhower Library===

Opened in 1966, the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidential library at Abilene, Kansas, houses Eisenhower's presidential papers, collections of papers of 350 of his associates, and records of White House agencies that functioned during his presidency. The library also holds photographs, motion picture films, and Eisenhower memorabilia, and sponsors meetings of scholars to discuss Einsehower and his era.

Opened in 1966, the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidential library at Abilene, Kansas, houses Eisenhower's presidential papers, collections of papers of 350 of his associates, and records of White House agencies that functioned during his presidency. The library also holds photographs, motion picture films, and Eisenhower memorabilia, and sponsors meetings of scholars to discuss Eisenhower and his era.

 

 

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* Ambrose, Stephen E. vol 1: ''Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect''; vol 2: ''Eisenhower: The President''; one volume edition is ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'' (2003), standard scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/Eisenhower-Stephen-E-Ambrose/dp/0671747584/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Ambrose, Stephen E. vol 1: ''Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect''; vol 2: ''Eisenhower: The President''; one volume edition is ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'' (2003), standard scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/Eisenhower-Stephen-E-Ambrose/dp/0671747584/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Boyle, Peter G.  ''Eisenhower.'' (Profiles in Power Series.)  (2005). 200 pp.   

* Boyle, Peter G.  ''Eisenhower.'' (Profiles in Power Series.)  (2005). 200 pp.   

* Eisenhower, David. ''Eisenhower At War 1943/45'' (1986), 825pp; solid biography by his grandson

* Eisenhower, David. ''Eisenhower At War 1943/45'' (1986), 825pp; solid biography by his grandson

* Korda, Michael. ''Ike: An American Hero'' (2007) popular military biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Ike-American-Hero-Michael-Korda/dp/0060756659/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]  

* Korda, Michael. ''Ike: An American Hero'' (2007) popular military biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Ike-American-Hero-Michael-Korda/dp/0060756659/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]  

* Lasby, Clarence G. ''Eisenhower's Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held on to the Presidency.'' (1997) 384 pp. unusually brilliant medical history coreing his entire life  

* Lasby, Clarence G. ''Eisenhower's Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held on to the Presidency.'' (1997) 384 pp. unusually brilliant medical history covering his entire life  

* Perret, Geoffrey. ''Eisenhower'' (2000), popular military biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Eisenhower-Geoffrey-Perret/dp/1580624316/ref=pd_bbs_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]  

* Perret, Geoffrey. ''Eisenhower'' (2000), popular military biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Eisenhower-Geoffrey-Perret/dp/1580624316/ref=pd_bbs_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]  

*Picket, William B. ''Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power'' (1995) 231pp, short overview by scholar

*Picket, William B. ''Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power'' (1995) 231pp, short overview by scholar

   

   

===To 1952===

===To 1952===

* Bielakowski, Alexander M. "Eisenhower: the First Nato SACEUR' ''War & Society'' (2004) 22(2): 95-108. Issn: 0729-2473  

* Bielakowski, Alexander M. "Eisenhower: the First NATO SACEUR' ''War & Society'' (2004) 22(2): 95-108. Issn: 0729-2473  

* Chernus, Ira. "Eisenhower's Ideology in World War II," ''Armed Forces & Society'' 1997 23(4): 595-613. Issn: 0095-327x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]  

* Chernus, Ira. "Eisenhower's Ideology in World War II," ''Armed Forces & Society'' 1997 23(4): 595-613. Issn: 0095-327x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]  

* Chernus, Ira. ''General Eisenhower: Ideology and Discourse.'' (2002). 366 pp.

* Chernus, Ira. ''General Eisenhower: Ideology and Discourse.'' (2002). 366 pp.

* Alexander, Charles C. ''Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14427822 online edition]

* Alexander, Charles C. ''Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14427822 online edition]

* Allen, Craig.  ''Eisenhower and the Mass Media: Peace, Prosperity and Prime-Time TV.'' (1993). 259 pp.   

* Allen, Craig.  ''Eisenhower and the Mass Media: Peace, Prosperity and Prime-Time TV.'' (1993). 259 pp.   

* Damms, Richard V. ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961'' (2002) 161 pp. short survey by Britissh scholar

* Damms, Richard V. ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961'' (2002) 161 pp. short survey by British scholar

* Greenstein, Fred I. ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader'' (1991), highly influential study by political scientist

* Greenstein, Fred I. ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader'' (1991), highly influential study by political scientist

* Greenstein, Fred I. "Ronald Reagan. Another Hidden-Hand Ike?" ''PS: Political Science and Politics,'' Vol. 23, No. 1. (Mar., 1990), pp. 7-13. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1049-0965%28199003%2923%3A1%3C7%3ARRAHI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 in JSTOR]

* Greenstein, Fred I. "Ronald Reagan. Another Hidden-Hand Ike?" ''PS: Political Science and Politics,'' Vol. 23, No. 1. (Mar., 1990), pp. 7-13. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1049-0965%28199003%2923%3A1%3C7%3ARRAHI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 in JSTOR]

===Primary Sources===

===Primary Sources===

* [http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/publications/ERP/ Council of Economic Advisors, ''Economic Report of the President'' (annual 1947- )], complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistcial tables

* [http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/publications/ERP/ Council of Economic Advisors, ''Economic Report of the President'' (annual 1947- )], complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistical tables

* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971'' 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.

* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971'' 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.

* Eisenhower, Dwight D. ''Crusade In Europe'' (1948), war memoir [http://www.amazon.com/Crusade-Europe-Dwight-David-Eisenhower/dp/080185668X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* Eisenhower, Dwight D. ''Crusade In Europe'' (1948), war memoir [http://www.amazon.com/Crusade-Europe-Dwight-David-Eisenhower/dp/080185668X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193643591&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]