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Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  The patricians made up only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  The patricians made up only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and to appease them, the Senate granted plebians the right to elect representatives, or “tribunes”.  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The republic recieved a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and to appease them, the Senate granted plebians the right to elect representatives, or “tribunes”.  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

The Roman system was destined to become a great empire, perhaps the greatest the world would ever see.  Two ingredients were crucial to its success:  Roman law and Roman legions.

The Roman system was destined to become a great empire, perhaps the greatest the world would ever see.  Two ingredients were crucial to its success:  Roman law and Roman legions.

Roman Law developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to offer justice to Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen, during His trial.  It began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  “Twelve” is an easy number to remember:  it’s the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

Roman Law developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice to Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen, during His trial.  It began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  “Twelve” is an easy number to remember:  it’s the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

Judges (elected “praetors”) interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of “civil law”, expressed in Latin as “jus civile.”  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of “justice” developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were only to be entered based on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through “jus gentium,” or “law of nations,” which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or “jus naturale,” to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of “innocent until proven guilty.”  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as “Justinian’s Code” in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Judges (elected “praetors”) interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of “civil law”, expressed in Latin as “jus civile.”  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of “justice” developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were only to be entered based on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through “jus gentium,” or “law of nations,” which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or “jus naturale,” to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of “innocent until proven guilty.”  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as “Justinian’s Code” in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named “Punic” after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named “Punic” after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships could not match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  However, the invention of the “corvus” (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  However, the invention of the “corvus” (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against Hannibal, the leader of Carthage who took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Roman general attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against Hannibal, the leader of Carthage who took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Roman general attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.