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==The Roman Empire==

==The Roman Empire==

Around 2000 B.C., Indo-Europeans settled the Italian peninsula where modern-day Italy is located.  Recall that "Indo-Europeans" is a very general classification that includes peoples stretching all the way from India to Europe, and who spoke any of dozens of Indo-European languages, including Sanskrit in India, Persian in the Middle East, Slavic in Eastern Europe and Germanic, Italic and Celtic languages in Europe.  Like Indian, the Roman empire traced its roots to Indo-Europeans.

Around 2000 B.C., Indo-Europeans settled the Italian peninsula where modern-day Italy is located.  Recall that "Indo-Europeans" is a very general classification that includes peoples stretching all the way from India to Europe, and who spoke any of dozens of Indo-European languages, including Sanskrit in India, Persian in the Middle East, Slavic in Eastern Europe and Germanic, Italic and Celtic languages in Europe.  Like the ancient and classical Indian civilization, the Roman empire traced its roots to Indo-Europeans.

===The Beginnings of the Roman Republic===

===The Beginnings of the Roman Republic===

The Roman empire received its name from its western capital, Rome, which was the first city of the empire, dating back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some [[Greeks]] fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region "Italy".  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendants of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, "The Illiad," and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

The Roman empire received its name from its western capital, Rome, which was the first city of the empire, dating back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some [[Greeks]] fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region "Italy".  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendants of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, ''The Iliad'', and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become an essential characteristic of the Roman people.   

When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become an essential characteristic of the Roman people.   

But in 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (chariots), architectural forms (the arch), and beliefs (their main gods and goddesses Jupiter, Juno and Miverna—worshiped later by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

But in 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (chariots), architectural forms (the arch), and beliefs (their main gods and goddesses Jupiter, Juno and Miverna — worshiped later by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  The patricians made up only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries. At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class. The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  (You can remember that plebeians were poorer by reference to the term "plebe", who is a freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)  

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and to appease them, the Senate granted plebians the right to elect representatives, or “tribunes”.  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

The patricians made up only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions. They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

The Roman system was destined to become a great empire, perhaps the greatest the world would ever see.  Two ingredients were crucial to its success:  Roman law and Roman legions.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Roman Law developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice to Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen, during His trial.  It began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  “Twelve” is an easy number to remember:  it’s the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

 

Roman Law developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

Judges (elected “praetors”) interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of “civil law”, expressed in Latin as “jus civile.”  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of “justice” developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were only to be entered based on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through “jus gentium,” or “law of nations,” which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or “jus naturale,” to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of “innocent until proven guilty.”  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as “Justinian’s Code” in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Judges (elected “praetors”) interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of “civil law”, expressed in Latin as “jus civile.”  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of “justice” developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were only to be entered based on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through “jus gentium,” or “law of nations,” which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or “jus naturale,” to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of “innocent until proven guilty.”  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as “Justinian’s Code” in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.