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[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

The Roman empire was the last great ancient civilization.  Many consider to be the greatest civilization of all.  It brought the world Latin, good roads, Pontius Pilate, the brutal persecution of early Christians and, ultimately, the acceptance and expansion of Christianity.  One could spend an entire course on the Roman empire, and we will devote our entire lecture to the history of this remarkable civilization.

The Roman empire was the last great ancient civilization.  Many consider it to be the greatest civilization of all.  It brought the world Latin, good roads, Pontius Pilate, the brutal persecution of early Christians and, ultimately, the acceptance and expansion of Christianity.  One could spend an entire course on the Roman empire.  We do not have that much time for it now, but we will devote this entire lecture to the history of this remarkable civilization.

==The Roman Empire==

==The Roman Empire==

The Roman empire received its name from its western capital, Rome, which was the first city of the empire, dating back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some [[Greeks]] fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region "Italy".  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendants of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, ''The Iliad'', and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

The Roman empire received its name from its western capital, Rome, which was the first city of the empire, dating back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some [[Greeks]] fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region "Italy".  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendants of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, ''The Iliad'', and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become an essential characteristic of the Roman people.   

When Romulus and Remus were grown, they killed their uncle and founded a city.  Each wanted the new city to be in a different location, and in the fight that ensued, Romulus killed his brother Remus and the city was named Rome.  This story illustrates well the violence and cruelty that was to become a defining characteristic of the Roman people.   

But in 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (chariots), architectural forms (the arch), and beliefs (their main gods and goddesses Jupiter, Juno and Miverna — worshiped later by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

In 700 B.C. the Etruscans conquered Rome, and King Etruscan ruled it like the city-states in Greece.  The Etruscans had a huge influence on the Italian peninsula, and many of their hobbies (chariots), architectural forms (the arch), and beliefs (their main gods and goddesses Jupiter, Juno and Miverna — worshiped later by the Romans) remained influential for thousands of years.  Some Greeks migrated to the Italian peninsula also.  To the Etruscans, Rome was just another small city-state then.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Landowners revolted and began establishing a republic over the entire region, without any city-states.  In 509 B.C., the Roman Republic was formed.  After overthrowing the Etruscan king, Roman soldiers conquered the Etruscan city-states one-by-one.  By 250 B.C., Romans had taken over every previously Etruscan-ruled territory.

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  (You can remember that plebeians were poorer by reference to the term "plebe", who is a freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

Early Roman society had two classes of people:  patricians (wealthy landowners) and plebeians (small farmers and shopkeepers).  (You can remember that plebeians were poorer by reference to the term "plebe", which is the word used to describe a lowly freshman at a U.S. military academy like West Point.)   

The patricians made up only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

The patricians comprised only 10% of the society, but held most of the power through their 300-member Senate.  Senators served for life and made decisions about war and peace and proposed laws to govern the country.  Proposed laws required approval by the Assembly of Centuries, which was composed of all-male soldiers, organized in units of 100 each, or centuries.  At the head of the republic were two consuls, elected from the patrician class.  The consuls ran the army and managed religious functions.  They could veto each other and even turn their power over to a dictator for a maximum of six months.  Citizenship was typically not offered to people in conquered lands.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

Before long the plebes began to fight for more rights.  They refused to serve in the army, however, and the Senate appeased plebians by granting them the right to elect representatives, or "tribunes".  The election of these tribunes occurred at a gathering of plebes called the Assembly of Tribes, which passed resolutions that the tribunes could present for ratification by the Senate.  The Tribal Assembly could also veto some laws.  The patrician monopoly on important positions was further weakened when intermarriage between plebes and patricians was legalized for the first time in 445 B.C.  The Republic received a setback when Rome was sacked by Gaul (modern France) in 390 B.C.  Afterward, beginning in 376 B.C. plebes could serve in the consuls, and by 287 B.C. patricians could participate in the Assembly of Tribes.  Class differences began to disappear and Roman society became more democratic.

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  It language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, so that he gets as much in value as he paid" or, more literally, "let the buyer beware").

'''Two ingredients made Rome a great empire:  Roman law and Roman legions.'''  Your instructor emphasizes a third ingredient:  Latin, the Roman language, was a very powerful, effective means of communicating.  This language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system, science, and elsewhere.  Concepts that require sentences to be described in English can be expressed in just a few words in Latin, such as "caveat emptor" (meaning "the burden of examining a product or service is on the buyer before he pays his money, and it is up to him alone to make sure that he gets as much in value as he pays"; more literally, "caveat emptor" means "let the buyer beware").

Roman Law developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

'''Roman Law''' developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered only based on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered based only on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

   

   

As important as Roman law was, the Roman military was even more influential.  Every Roman physically capable male was required to serve in the army.  Despite this forced service which might seem likely to result in a poor army, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman "legions" of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

As important as Roman law was, the '''Roman military''' was even more influential.  Every physically capable male Roman was required to serve in the army.  Despite this forced service that might seem likely to result in a poor army, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman "legions" of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

===The Punic Wars===

===The Punic Wars===

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  However, the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were at first no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  But the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Roman general attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Romans attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  They the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region as revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  They the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region as revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

Afterward a period of struggle ensued between the Roman military, fresh from its conquests, and the Senate that ruled under a republican form of government.  Some corruption followed, and historians blame wealthy senators for blocking some economic proposals.   

Afterward a period of struggle ensued between the Roman military, fresh from its conquests, and the Senate that ruled under a republican form of government.  Some corruption followed, and historians blame wealthy senators for blocking some economic proposals.   

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, served as tribunes in 133 and 123 B.C., respectively.  They passed laws to help the poor by redistributing land from the wealthy estates known as "latifundia" to the poor.  Gaius tried to end the practice of wheat speculation, by which wealthy citizens bought all the grain available and then, during times of shortage, resold it to the poor at greatly inflated prices.  However, the angry Senate instigated a riot that clubbed Tiberius to death in 133 B.C., and his brother Gaius committed suicide before he could be assassinated for trying to resell grain to the poor at low prices in 121 B.C.   

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, served as tribunes in 133 and 123 B.C., respectively.  They passed laws to help the poor by redistributing land to the poor from the wealthy estates, known as "latifundia".  Gaius tried to end the practice of wheat speculation, by which wealthy citizens bought all the grain available and then, during times of shortage, resold it to the poor at greatly inflated prices.  However, the angry Senate instigated a riot that clubbed Tiberius to death in 133 B.C., and his brother Gaius committed suicide before he could be assassinated for trying to resell grain to the poor at low prices in 121 B.C.   

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome's first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  Soon, a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla).  Finally, Sulla took power, executed Marius's followers, and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome's first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  Soon a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla).  Finally, Sulla took power, executed Marius's followers, and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

===Julius Caesar===

===Julius Caesar===