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===Julius Caesar===

===Julius Caesar===

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public, by distributing grain to the poor, for example.

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public by, for example, distributing grain to the poor.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practice outside the requirements of Roman religious law.  An uneasy practice of the Jewish faith thus continued in the Roman empire up to and through the time of Christ.  Julius Caesar was good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practiced outside the requirements of Roman religious law, which continued through the time of Christ.  Julius Caesar was also good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

The Roman Senate did not like losing power to the dictator Julius Caesar.  In a conspiracy famously recounted in Shakespeare's play entitled ''Julius Caesar'', Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the "Ides of March" (March 15, 44 B.C.).  After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strove for power.  Julius Caesar had wanted his 18-year-old grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, to be his heir and become emperor.  Others wanted Mark Antony.  Cassius and Brutus also had armies of their own.  First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Roman Senate.   

The Roman Senate did not like losing power to the dictator Julius Caesar.  In a conspiracy famously recounted in Shakespeare's play entitled ''Julius Caesar'', Cassius and Brutus and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the "Ides of March" (March 15, 44 B.C.).  After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strove for power.  Julius Caesar had wanted his 18-year-old grandnephew, Gaius Octavius, to be his heir and become emperor.  Others wanted Mark Antony.  Cassius and Brutus also had armies of their own.  First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Roman Senate.   

Then the triumvirate fought with each other.  First, Lepidus retired.  Then Antony fell in love with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and went to be with her there, ruling the eastern part of the empire.  To turn public opinion against the popular Antony, Octavian read aloud a paper to the Senate that was supposedly Antony's will.  In it, Antony expressed his intent for Cleopatra and her children to rule the eastern part of the Empire after his death.  At the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Antony and Octavian clashed and Octavian won.  Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, but Octavian's army hunted them down.  Rather than be captured or killed, they took their own lives.  Their affair was chronicled over a thousand years later by Shakespeare in his tragedy, ''Antony and Cleopatra''.  After their deaths, Octavian was the sole ruler.

Then the triumvirate fought internally among each other.  Lepidus retired.  Then Antony fell in love with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and went to be with her there, ruling the eastern part of the empire.  To turn public opinion against the popular Antony, Octavian read aloud a paper to the Senate that was supposedly Antony's will.  In it, Antony expressed his intent for Cleopatra and her children to rule the eastern part of the Empire after his death.  At the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Antony and Octavian clashed and Octavian won.  Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, but Octavian's army hunted them down.  Rather than be captured or killed, they took their own lives.  Their affair was chronicled over a thousand years later by Shakespeare in his tragedy, ''Antony and Cleopatra''.  After their deaths, Octavian was the sole ruler.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterward.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero's work named ''The Philippics'' criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., Antony responded by putting Cicero to death.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterward.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero's work named ''The Philippics'' criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., Antony responded by putting Cicero to death.

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===Birth of the Roman Empire===

===Birth of the Roman Empire===

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods), and the Roman empire was born (see right).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  Augustus then ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  This was the official birth of the Roman empire, which covered vast, previously conquered territory (see right).  Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

Augustus essentially established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, as the Senate’s role was only advisory.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

Augustus established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, as the Senate's role was only advisory.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, a plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem), and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire, leaving behind improved architecture and ideas which allowed England to become powerful during the Middle Ages.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem), and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire, leaving behind improved architecture and ideas which allowed England to become powerful during the Middle Ages.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today’s standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote The Aeneid, which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of ''The Iliad'' and ''The Odyssey''.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (''Annals'' concerned public virtue and ''Germania'' concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (''Metamorphoses'').  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today's standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote ''The Aeneid'', which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of ''The Iliad'' and ''The Odyssey''.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (''Annals'' concerned public virtue and ''Germania'' concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (''Metamorphoses'').  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor and the ruler when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus's adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus' successors known as the "Julio-Claudian" emperors.   

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor and the ruler when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus's adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus' successors known as the "Julio-Claudian" emperors.   

When Augustus became emperor, he established the praetorians to protect the Roman general ("praetor") and the emperor.  These elite, well-trained and privileged troops served as a kind of secret police, having more power than the Secret Service does today in protecting the president of the United States.  It became essential to gain the support of the praetorians in order to hold high office in government.  Constantine abolished the praetorians in the early A.D. 300s.

When Augustus became emperor, he established the praetorians to protect the Roman general ("praetor") and the emperor.  These elite, well-trained and privileged troops served as a kind of secret police, having more power than the Secret Service does today in protecting the president of the United States.  It became essential to gain the support of the praetorians in order to hold high office in government.  Constantine later abolished the praetorians in the early A.D. 300s.

Tiberius ruled from A.D. 14-37, and thus was the emperor when Jesus was scourged (whipped) and crucified, barbaric treatment that was prohibited against Roman citizens.  Tiberius had previously served a distinguished military career, and at first was a competent ruler extending the earlier policies of his stepfather Augustus.  But increasingly Tiberius became paranoid, and ruled more and more like a tyrant.  He oversaw many trials for treason and executions, and then left Rome itself in A.D. 26 to retire in Capri, where he was when Jesus was crucified.

Tiberius ruled from A.D. 14-37, and thus was the emperor when Jesus was scourged (whipped) and crucified, barbaric treatment that was prohibited against Roman citizens.  Tiberius had previously served a distinguished military career, and at first was a competent ruler extending the earlier policies of his stepfather Augustus.  But increasingly Tiberius became paranoid, and ruled more and more like a tyrant.  He oversaw many trials for treason and executions, and then left Rome itself in A.D. 26 to retire in Capri, where he was when Jesus was crucified.