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In Islamic Egypt, modernization was attempted by the Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) and his grandson Ismail.  Muhammad Ali Pasha forced farmers to leave their farms and work on commercial plantations he established to export cotton and other crops to Europe.  But in the end, his government-planned industrialization resulted in a large debt to Western European countries, especially England.  In Russia, industrialization was encouraged by the completion of the trans-Siberian railroad in 1904, connecting Russian to China and Japan.  Japan was the only Asian country to successfully industrialize.  Under Meiji rule, the government invited foreigners to teach industrialization principles.  Businesses were sponsored and controlled by the government, and, when established, were then sold to private individuals.

In Islamic Egypt, modernization was attempted by the Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) and his grandson Ismail.  Muhammad Ali Pasha forced farmers to leave their farms and work on commercial plantations he established to export cotton and other crops to Europe.  But in the end, his government-planned industrialization resulted in a large debt to Western European countries, especially England.  In Russia, industrialization was encouraged by the completion of the trans-Siberian railroad in 1904, connecting Russian to China and Japan.  Japan was the only Asian country to successfully industrialize.  Under Meiji rule, the government invited foreigners to teach industrialization principles.  Businesses were sponsored and controlled by the government, and, when established, were then sold to private individuals.

There were two key aspects to the Industrial Revolution: technology and culture.  In technology, the Industrial Revolution began using iron and steel as basic resources, and developed energy sources such as electricity, oil and the steam engine.  Transportation benefited from the steam engine (invented by James Watt in the 1770s) and later the car and airplane (invented by the Wright Brothers in 1903), while communication benefited from the telegraph (invented by Samuel Morse in 1837) and (later) the telephone (invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876) and the radio (invented in 1895).  New machines such as the power loom and spinning jenny enabled mass production, and factories arose to divide labor and permit specialization.  Increase application of science to industry helped enormously.

There were two key aspects to the Industrial Revolution: technology and culture.  In technology, the Industrial Revolution began using iron and steel as basic resources, and developed energy sources such as electricity, oil and the steam engine.  Transportation benefited from the steam engine (invented by James Watt in the 1770s) and later the car and airplane (invented by the Wright Brothers in 1903), while communication benefited from the telegraph (invented by Samuel Morse in 1837) and (later) the telephone (invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876) and the radio (invented in 1895).  New machines such as the power loom and spinning jenny enabled mass production, and factories arose to divide labor and permit specialization.  Increased application of science to industry helped enormously.

Other factors also caused industrialization.  As farming techniques improved, each farm could obtain better yield or output from their land, and there was less of a need for so many farmers.  A few farmers benefited from “economies of scale,” which is when something can be doing more efficiently on a larger scale, like when a large store like Wal-Mart provides cheaper goods than a small store can.  In the early 1700s, there was an “enclosure movement” whereby wealthy farmers bought land from small farmers, then benefited from economies of scale in farming huge tracts of land.  The enclosure movement led to improved crop production, such as the rotation of crops.  People began moving to cities, where they could more easily work in factories than on farmland.  In England, population growth caused former farmers or children of farmers to migrate from southeastern England to the northwest, where factories were being built.

Other factors also caused industrialization.  As farming techniques improved, each farm could obtain better yield or output from their land, and there was less of a need for so many farmers.  A few farmers benefited from “economies of scale,” which is when something can be done more efficiently on a larger scale, like when a large store like Wal-Mart provides cheaper goods than a small store can.  In the early 1700s, there was an “enclosure movement” whereby wealthy farmers bought land from small farmers, then benefited from economies of scale in farming huge tracts of land.  The enclosure movement led to improved crop production, such as the rotation of crops.  People began moving to cities, where they could more easily work in factories than on farmland.  In England, population growth caused former farmers or children of farmers to migrate from southeastern England to the northwest, where factories were being built.

England, the land of free enterprise and Adam Smith, had the perfect economic climate for the Industrial Revolution.  England had all of the necessary “factors of production” (a term for the resources of an economy: land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship) to become an industrialized economy.  There was plenty of money or capital to invest in new factories.  There were many entrepreneurs hoping to profit from new businesses.  There was sufficient land and natural resources, with the colonies of England providing raw materials as needed.  And there was also adequate labor for the factories:  the former small farmers.  Most of all, there was a world of customers around the world wanting to buy the manufactured goods, and England’s merchant navy traded with the entire world.

England, the land of free enterprise and Adam Smith, had the perfect economic climate for the Industrial Revolution.  England had all of the necessary “factors of production” (a term for the resources of an economy: land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship) to become an industrialized economy.  There was plenty of money or capital to invest in new factories.  There were many entrepreneurs hoping to profit from new businesses.  There was sufficient land and natural resources, with the colonies of England providing raw materials as needed.  And there was also adequate labor for the factories:  the former small farmers.  Most of all, there was a world of customers around the world wanting to buy the manufactured goods, and England’s merchant navy traded with the entire world.

'''Classical Economics'''

'''Classical Economics'''

Inspired by Adam Smith, classical economics is the economic theory emphasizing self-interest along with the operation of basic economic principles.  For example, classical economics predicts full employment if the government does not interfere by requiring minimum wage laws or other imposing other regulations.  In addition to Adam Smith, leading proponents of classical economics included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Jean Baptiste Say, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.  They advocated “capitalism”, by which ownership of private property helps create profits for the owners and greater wealth for all of society.  We next describe several of the more important “classical economists.”

Inspired by Adam Smith, classical economics is the economic theory emphasizing self-interest along with the operation of basic economic principles.  For example, classical economics predicts full employment if the government does not interfere by requiring minimum wage laws or other imposing regulations.  In addition to Adam Smith, leading proponents of classical economics included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Jean Baptiste Say, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.  They advocated “capitalism”, by which ownership of private property helps create profits for the owners and greater wealth for all of society.  We next describe several of the more important “classical economists.”

David Ricardo (1772-1823), was a pessimistic British economist most famous for developing the theory of “comparative advantage” to support more trade between nation.  He explained that it might be advantageous for England to produce cloth and Portugal to produce wine, and to trade to obtain what each lacks, even though Portugal might have produced both wine and cloth at a lower cost than England could.  This would be true, for example, if Portugal is particularly good at producing wine, perhaps because of its climate or expertise; Portugal and England would be better off if Portugal spent all its time and money producing wine for both nations.  (This insight is similar to the concept of “do what you do best”).

David Ricardo (1772-1823), was a pessimistic British economist most famous for developing the theory of “comparative advantage” to support more trade between nations.  He explained that it might be advantageous for England to produce cloth and Portugal to produce wine, and to trade to obtain what each lacks, even though Portugal might have produced both wine and cloth at a lower cost than England could.  This would be true, for example, if Portugal is particularly good at producing wine, perhaps because of its climate or expertise; Portugal and England would be better off if Portugal spent all its time and money producing wine for both nations.  (This insight is similar to the concept of “do what you do best”).

Unfortunately, David Ricardo also proposed incorrect theories like the gloomy “iron law of wages,” which claimed that wages would never rise above the bare minimum necessary to sustain a worker.  Opponents of Adam Smith and free enterprise used some of these incorrect theories to argue for government control and regulation of business.

Unfortunately, David Ricardo also proposed incorrect theories like the gloomy “iron law of wages,” which claimed that wages would never rise above the bare minimum necessary to sustain a worker.  Opponents of Adam Smith and free enterprise used some of these incorrect theories to argue for government control and regulation of business.

The greatest scientists and mathematicians, from Louis Pasteur to Bernhard Riemann, viewed Darwin’s theory as absurd.  The French described Darwin’s theory as “a fairy tale for grown-ups.”  Darwin’s explanation for an evolution of the whale (a mammal) was that it somehow came from black bears swimming with their mouths open.  Darwin’s theory conflicts with the Flood, the fact that all mutations are harmful, the fact that species have been going extinct rather than being generated, and the fact that all unaided things become more disordered and scattered over time.  Today Darwin’s theory is most popular among people who, like Darwin himself, have some superficial education in science without any depth of study or insight.  Darwin’s theory ignores the vast beauty in the world; Darwin’s theory is based only on functionality, without any recognition of artistic design.

The greatest scientists and mathematicians, from Louis Pasteur to Bernhard Riemann, viewed Darwin’s theory as absurd.  The French described Darwin’s theory as “a fairy tale for grown-ups.”  Darwin’s explanation for an evolution of the whale (a mammal) was that it somehow came from black bears swimming with their mouths open.  Darwin’s theory conflicts with the Flood, the fact that all mutations are harmful, the fact that species have been going extinct rather than being generated, and the fact that all unaided things become more disordered and scattered over time.  Today Darwin’s theory is most popular among people who, like Darwin himself, have some superficial education in science without any depth of study or insight.  Darwin’s theory ignores the vast beauty in the world; Darwin’s theory is based only on functionality, without any recognition of artistic design.

It was for political reasons that Darwin’s theory has been taught in schools, aided by frauds like the Piltdown Man (a fake fossil combination that was taught for 40 years has the missing link between man and apes).  Darwin, an Englishman, is promoted heavily in England and even buried next to Isaac Newton.  Germany also promoted the theory of evolution heavily until the Darwinists engaged in racial cleansing and experimentation to “perfect” the Aryan race under Adolf Hitler.  In the United States, evolution has been taught in public schools for nearly 100 years, yet 90% of Americans continue to reject the theory as it is being taught.

It was for political reasons that Darwin’s theory has been taught in schools, aided by frauds like the Piltdown Man (a fake fossil combination that was taught for 40 years as the "missing link" between man and apes).  Darwin, an Englishman, is promoted heavily in England and even buried next to Isaac Newton.  Germany also promoted the theory of evolution heavily until the Darwinists engaged in racial cleansing and experimentation to “perfect” the Aryan race under Adolf Hitler.  In the United States, evolution has been taught in public schools for nearly 100 years, yet 90% of Americans continue to reject the theory as it is being taught.

The link between Darwinism, atheism and politics was grew strong in the late 1800s and even stronger today.  Beginning in 1887, social scientists were using the term “social Darwinism” to apply a barbaric survival-of-the-fittest theory to social situations.  Under this theory, the wealthiest or most powerful in society must be biologically superior, and less “fit” persons should die or simply be killed like weak animals.  Soon many began to view racial struggles, and war itself, as a perfectly natural example of survival-of-the-fittest in the human race.  The horrific wars of the 20th century, employing shockingly brutal tactics, were encouraged by a belief in survival-of-the-fittest among humans.

The link between Darwinism, atheism and politics grew strong in the late 1800s and is even stronger today.  Beginning in 1887, social scientists were using the term “social Darwinism” to apply a barbaric survival-of-the-fittest theory to social situations.  Under this theory, the wealthiest or most powerful in society must be biologically superior, and less “fit” persons should die or simply be killed like weak animals.  Soon many began to view racial struggles, and war itself, as a perfectly natural example of survival-of-the-fittest in the human race.  The horrific wars of the 20th century, employing shockingly brutal tactics, were encouraged by a belief in survival-of-the-fittest among humans.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism and evolution weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism and evolution weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

By 1838 the Chartist movement demanded that Parliament extend suffrage to all men based on the secret ballot.  The Chartist movement also sought annual elections for Parliament, salaries for its members (so that the middle class could afford to serve), and the elimination of property requirements as a condition for belonging to Parliament.  But Parliament did not enact these reforms until 1900.

By 1838 the Chartist movement demanded that Parliament extend suffrage to all men based on the secret ballot.  The Chartist movement also sought annual elections for Parliament, salaries for its members (so that the middle class could afford to serve), and the elimination of property requirements as a condition for belonging to Parliament.  But Parliament did not enact these reforms until 1900.

Gradually the power of the monarchy in England was reduced to that of figurehead, which is all it is today.  Parliament increased in power, and much of that power went to the elected lower house (the House of Commons) rather than the upper, unelected House of Lords.

Gradually the power of the monarchy in England was reduced to that of a figurehead, which is all it is today.  Parliament increased in power, and much of that power went to the elected lower house (the House of Commons) rather than the upper, unelected House of Lords.

Democracy came much later to other European countries.  The great potato famine of the 1840s killed many in Ireland and caused many more to immigrate to the United States.  But Ireland was ruled by Britain then, and Irish did not obtain any substantial level of self-government until the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.  Many in Ireland and many Americans of Irish descent blame British leaders for allowing that horrific potato famine to happen, and without home rule there was little the Irish people could do to stop it.

Democracy came much later to other European countries.  The great potato famine of the 1840s killed many in Ireland and caused many more to immigrate to the United States.  But Ireland was ruled by Britain then, and the Irish did not obtain any substantial level of self-government until the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.  Many in Ireland and many Americans of Irish descent blame British leaders for allowing that horrific potato famine to happen, and without home rule there was little the Irish people could do to stop it.

Canada achieved effective independence (as a Dominion within the British Empire)in 1867, but still remained within the British empire (Newfoundland remained a British territory and did not join Canada until 1949).  Australia, which was originally settled by prisoners from England, did not obtain self-rule for its separate colonies until the 1850s; it obtained independence as a united Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.  New Zealand also won self-rule in the 1850s and Dominion status (effective independence) in 1907.   

Canada achieved effective independence (as a Dominion within the British Empire) in 1867, but still remained within the British empire (Newfoundland remained a British territory and did not join Canada until 1949).  Australia, which was originally settled by prisoners from England, did not obtain self-rule for its separate colonies until the 1850s; it obtained independence as a united Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.  New Zealand also won self-rule in the 1850s and Dominion status (effective independence) in 1907.   

In France, its Third Republic ruled from 1870 until the German Occupation in 1940.

In France, its Third Republic ruled from 1870 until the German Occupation in 1940.