Changes

'''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer hired by Spain to reach Asia in 1491; instead he discovered a continent, and in four voyages explored the [[West Indies]] from 1492 to 1502.  His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas, and Columbus became both a symbol of the new world and an iconic hero for the age of exploration.

'''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer hired by Spain to reach Asia in 1491; instead he discovered a continent, and in four voyages explored the [[West Indies]] from 1492 to 1502.  His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas, and Columbus became both a symbol of the new world and an iconic hero for the age of exploration.

As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.<ref> Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" ''Continuity'' 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446 </ref>

As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.<ref> Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" ''Continuity'' 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446 </ref>

==Early career==

==Early career==

For centuries, Asia's lucrative commodities, such as spices, had brought European traders overland. That route was now closed and by the 1480s Portugal took the lead in opening ocean routes to Asia, sailing south around Africa into the Indian Ocean, using superb navigational aids they had invented, maps they kept secret, and excellent ships.  products directly.  

For centuries, Asia's lucrative commodities, such as spices, had brought European traders overland. That route was now closed and by the 1480s Portugal took the lead in opening ocean routes to Asia, sailing south around Africa into the Indian Ocean, using superb navigational aids they had invented, maps they kept secret, and excellent ships.  products directly.  

Hearing many tales of legendary Atlantic voyages and rumors of land to the west of Madeira and the Azores, he studied books and maps.  Columbus became convinced that Asia could be reached by sailing due west from Europe. Columbus's ideas about the size of the world and a westward route to Asia probably evolved piecemeal. His conjectures were based on discoveries of islands in the Atlantic (the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, the Madeiras), rumors of additional islands, findings of unusual plant material and even human bodies drifting in from the western ocean, and by wide reading in academic geography, including ''Imago mundi'' (Image of the World) by the French theologian Pierre d' Ailly and the ''Geographia'' the ancient scientist Ptolemy.&lt;ref&gt;The people Columbus dealt with all knew the earth was round.&lt;/ref&gt;

Hearing many tales of legendary Atlantic voyages and rumors of land to the west of Madeira and the Azores, he studied books and maps.  Columbus became convinced that Asia could be reached by sailing due west from Europe. Columbus's ideas about the size of the world and a westward route to Asia probably evolved piecemeal. His conjectures were based on discoveries of islands in the Atlantic (the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, the Madeiras), rumors of additional islands, findings of unusual plant material and even human bodies drifting in from the western ocean, and by wide reading in academic geography, including ''Imago mundi'' (Image of the World) by the French theologian Pierre d' Ailly and the ''Geographia'' the ancient scientist Ptolemy.<ref>The people Columbus dealt with all knew the earth was round.</ref>

He accepted Marco Polo's erroneous location for Japan-- as 1,500 miles east of China--and Ptolemy's underestimation of the circumference of the Earth. Therefore, he concluded, Japan was about 3,000 miles to the west of Portugal--which was barely within the extreme range of existing ships.  In 1484, Columbus sought support for an exploratory voyage from King John II of Portugal, but he was rejected.  The Portuguese believed it was too far for their ships.

He accepted Marco Polo's erroneous location for Japan-- as 1,500 miles east of China--and Ptolemy's underestimation of the circumference of the Earth. Therefore, he concluded, Japan was about 3,000 miles to the west of Portugal--which was barely within the extreme range of existing ships.  In 1484, Columbus sought support for an exploratory voyage from King John II of Portugal, but he was rejected.  The Portuguese believed it was too far for their ships.

[[Image:Christopher-columbus.jpg|thumb|250px|October 12, 1492]]

[[Image:Christopher-columbus.jpg|thumb|250px|October 12, 1492]]

Finally they came to land in the West Indies (October 12, 1492). When they explored a little they found the natives to be friendly and they found many new things that no European had ever seen before. Columbus thought he had landed in India, so he called the native people &quot;Indians&quot; - a designation which remains common to this very day. As they prepared to return to [[Spain]] the Santa Maria ran aground on a coral reef and could not be repaired. Columbus saw this as a sign from God and established a trading outpost he called Navidad (after the Christmas holiday).  

Finally they came to land in the West Indies (October 12, 1492). When they explored a little they found the natives to be friendly and they found many new things that no European had ever seen before. Columbus thought he had landed in India, so he called the native people "Indians" - a designation which remains common to this very day. As they prepared to return to [[Spain]] the Santa Maria ran aground on a coral reef and could not be repaired. Columbus saw this as a sign from God and established a trading outpost he called Navidad (after the Christmas holiday).  

However he still had the Nina and Pinta, and so he took most of his crew up the Windward Passage and onward to Spain. The king and queen were amazed by the colorful birds and strange foods that Columbus brought with him. Columbus was then called Admiral.

However he still had the Nina and Pinta, and so he took most of his crew up the Windward Passage and onward to Spain. The king and queen were amazed by the colorful birds and strange foods that Columbus brought with him. Columbus was then called Admiral.

==The Memory of Columbus==

==The Memory of Columbus==

Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a malleable and durable American symbol. Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia (an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty); as Columbus (an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned [[Manifest Destiny]]); and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities. During this evolution of &quot;discovering&quot; Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.&lt;ref&gt; Thomas J. Schlereth, &quot;Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism.&quot; ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR] &lt;/Ref&gt;

Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a malleable and durable American symbol. Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia (an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty); as Columbus (an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned [[Manifest Destiny]]); and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities. During this evolution of "discovering" Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.<ref> Thomas J. Schlereth, "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR] </Ref>

In the 19th century the works of historians [[Washington Irving]], [[George Bancroft]], and [[William Prescott]] created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in ''A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed &quot;savages&quot; to whom he introduced a &quot;superior&quot; culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity.  

In the 19th century the works of historians [[Washington Irving]], [[George Bancroft]], and [[William Prescott]] created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in ''A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed "savages" to whom he introduced a "superior" culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity.  

Americans celebrated Columbus's discovery of the New World and built numerous monuments to him in the late 19th century. The city of Columbus, Ohio was established in 1812. In addition, cities and towns, streets and health facilities, libraries, universities, schools, and in modern times sport teams bearing his name are symbols of his American stature. [[Columbus Day]], is a national holiday in the United States, proclaimed so in 1937 by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], primarily at the behest of [[Catholic]]s and the fast growing [[Italian]] immigrant community who wanted a national holiday of celebration.  

Americans celebrated Columbus's discovery of the New World and built numerous monuments to him in the late 19th century. The city of Columbus, Ohio was established in 1812. In addition, cities and towns, streets and health facilities, libraries, universities, schools, and in modern times sport teams bearing his name are symbols of his American stature. [[Columbus Day]], is a national holiday in the United States, proclaimed so in 1937 by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], primarily at the behest of [[Catholic]]s and the fast growing [[Italian]] immigrant community who wanted a national holiday of celebration.  

By the quincentenary celebration of his discovery in 1992, Columbus stood accused of genocide and ecocide.  Columbus Day became controversial in the 1970s, as a matter of white guilt regarding the mistreatment of native Americans. The main accuser was Colorado professor [[Ward Churchill]] (who was fired in 2007 for academic misconduct and falsifying history); he compared Columbus to Nazi Holocaust sponsor [[Heinrich Himmler]], pointing to the genocidal outcome of Columbus's brutal practices in the Caribbean.

By the quincentenary celebration of his discovery in 1992, Columbus stood accused of genocide and ecocide.  Columbus Day became controversial in the 1970s, as a matter of white guilt regarding the mistreatment of native Americans. The main accuser was Colorado professor [[Ward Churchill]] (who was fired in 2007 for academic misconduct and falsifying history); he compared Columbus to Nazi Holocaust sponsor [[Heinrich Himmler]], pointing to the genocidal outcome of Columbus's brutal practices in the Caribbean.

Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day&lt;/ref&gt;

Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.<ref>http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day</ref>

Leftist protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of frequently used the term &quot;genocide&quot; to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy &quot;maleficent myths&quot; about the past and expose complex origins of &quot;current fortunes and misfortunes&quot; without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.&lt;ref&gt;James Axtell, &quot;The Moral Dimensions of 1492,&quot; ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370 &lt;/ref&gt;

Leftist protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of frequently used the term "genocide" to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy "maleficent myths" about the past and expose complex origins of "current fortunes and misfortunes" without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.<ref>James Axtell, "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370 </ref>

==Cities named after Columbus==

==Cities named after Columbus==

** Bedini Silvio A. '' Christopher Columbus and the Age of Exploration'' (1998); 824pp encyclopedia

** Bedini Silvio A. '' Christopher Columbus and the Age of Exploration'' (1998); 824pp encyclopedia

* Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. ''Columbus: And the Conquest of the Impossible'' (2nd ed. 2001), 128pp; good, short, scholarly  

* Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. ''Columbus: And the Conquest of the Impossible'' (2nd ed. 2001), 128pp; good, short, scholarly  

* Morison, Samuel Eliot. '' Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus‎'' (1942), 691pp; the best biography; written by an eminent conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Admiral-Ocean-Sea-Christopher-Columbus/dp/0316584789/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1243893419&amp;sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Morison, Samuel Eliot. '' Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus‎'' (1942), 691pp; the best biography; written by an eminent conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Admiral-Ocean-Sea-Christopher-Columbus/dp/0316584789/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243893419&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Phillips, Carla Rahn. ''The Worlds of Christopher Columbus‎'' (1993) 340 pages, excellent popular biography   

* Phillips, Carla Rahn. ''The Worlds of Christopher Columbus‎'' (1993) 340 pages, excellent popular biography   

* [http://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/europe-1400-1789/christopher-columbus.jsp online books about Columbus]

* [http://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/europe-1400-1789/christopher-columbus.jsp online books about Columbus]

* Taviani, Paolo Emilio. ''Columbus, The Great Adventure: His Life, His Times, and His Voyages'' (1991), by the leading Italian expert

* Taviani, Paolo Emilio. ''Columbus, The Great Adventure: His Life, His Times, and His Voyages'' (1991), by the leading Italian expert

* Watts, Pauline Moffitt. &quot;Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies'&quot;. ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 90, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 73-102; emphasizes complex religious motivations [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1860749 in JSTOR]

* Watts, Pauline Moffitt. "Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies'". ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 90, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 73-102; emphasizes complex religious motivations [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1860749 in JSTOR]

*  Wilford, John Noble. ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy'' (1991), the best popular biography; very well written

*  Wilford, John Noble. ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy'' (1991), the best popular biography; very well written

===Historiography===

===Historiography===

* Axtell, James. &quot;Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995.&quot; ''William And Mary Quarterly'' 1995 52(4): 649-696. [http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/rev/AXTELL-1.HTML online edition]; [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2947042 also in JSTOR], leading scholar reviews the major publications

* Axtell, James. "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995." ''William And Mary Quarterly'' 1995 52(4): 649-696. [http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/rev/AXTELL-1.HTML online edition]; [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2947042 also in JSTOR], leading scholar reviews the major publications

* Axtell, James. &quot;The Moral Dimensions of 1492,&quot; ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370   

* Axtell, James. "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370   

* Bushman, Claudia L. ''America Discovers Columbus: How an Italian Explorer Became an American Hero.'' (1992). 217 pp.

* Bushman, Claudia L. ''America Discovers Columbus: How an Italian Explorer Became an American Hero.'' (1992). 217 pp.

* Davidson, Miles H. ''Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined.'' (1997). 609 pp.

* Davidson, Miles H. ''Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined.'' (1997). 609 pp.

* Sale, Kirkpatrick. ''The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy.'' (1990). 453 pp. nasty attack from the Left

* Sale, Kirkpatrick. ''The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy.'' (1990). 453 pp. nasty attack from the Left

* Schlereth, Thomas J. &quot;Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism.&quot; ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR]

* Schlereth, Thomas J. "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR]

* Summerhill, Stephen J. and John Alexander Williams. ''Sinking Columbus: Contested History, Cultural Politics, and Mythmaking during the Quincentenary.'' (2000). 219 pp.

* Summerhill, Stephen J. and John Alexander Williams. ''Sinking Columbus: Contested History, Cultural Politics, and Mythmaking during the Quincentenary.'' (2000). 219 pp.

* [http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/columbus/print.html additional bibliography]

* [http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/columbus/print.html additional bibliography]

== References ==

== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Columbus, Christopher}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Columbus, Christopher}}

{{Nb_explorers}}

{{Nb_explorers}}

[[Category:Colonial America]]

[[Category:Colonial America]]

[[Category:Spanish Empire]]

[[Category:Spanish Empire]]