Changes

In the [[Middle Ages]], Catholics blamed Jews for the death of Jesus Christ. This fueled Christian antipathy against Jews in most of Europe. This also led to rumors that Jews "desecrated the host" (tortured communion bread as per the [[Catholic]] doctrine of [[transubstination]], and that they "poisoned the wells", leading to the [[Black Death]].  Professing Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, and from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496. (Those who converted to Christianity could remain.) Many went to Holland.  Napoleon removed most of the restrictions that kept Jews in ghettoes in Germany.

In the [[Middle Ages]], Catholics blamed Jews for the death of Jesus Christ. This fueled Christian antipathy against Jews in most of Europe. This also led to rumors that Jews "desecrated the host" (tortured communion bread as per the [[Catholic]] doctrine of [[transubstination]], and that they "poisoned the wells", leading to the [[Black Death]].  Professing Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, and from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496. (Those who converted to Christianity could remain.) Many went to Holland.  Napoleon removed most of the restrictions that kept Jews in ghettoes in Germany.

===1800-1914===

===1800-1914===

====New nationalism===

====New nationalism====

Anti-semitism was transformed in the 19th century from a matter of religion to a matter of language and culture. Each "nation" rediscovered its historic languahe and culture and tried to establish a national homeland.  In most cases Jews were excluded or distrusted, and were not treated as part of the cultural center but as part of the periphery. Anti-Semitic references were common in the popular literature of both the 19th and early 20th centuries. It became more "scientific", and often connected with psuedo-scientific racial theories.  

Anti-semitism was transformed in the 19th century from a matter of religion to a matter of language and culture. Each "nation" rediscovered its historic languahe and culture and tried to establish a national homeland.  In most cases Jews were excluded or distrusted, and were not treated as part of the cultural center but as part of the periphery. Anti-Semitic references were common in the popular literature of both the 19th and early 20th centuries. It became more "scientific", and often connected with psuedo-scientific racial theories.  

====Germany====

====Germany====

====France====

====France====

[[Alfred Dreyfus]] (1859-1935) was a Jewish officer in the French Army falsely accused of spying in the 1890s. The Dreyfuss Affair became a central issue in French politics, with critics like Émile Zola --who creed "[[J'accuse]]"--insisting it was a miscarriage of justice brought by a conspiracy of Catholic army officers. Dreyfuss was proven innocent and released in 1899.  

[[Alfred Dreyfus]] (1859-1935) was a Jewish officer in the French Army falsely accused of spying in the 1890s. The Dreyfuss Affair became a central issue in French politics, with critics like Émile Zola --who creed "[[J'accuse]]"--insisting it was a miscarriage of justice brought by a conspiracy of Catholic army officers. Dreyfuss was proven innocent and released in 1899.

===1914-1945===

===1914-1945===