Changes

In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago.  In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945."  ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago.  In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945."  ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

=====Hispanics immigrants=====

=====Hispanic immigrants=====

Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II.  Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975."  PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp.  DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M.  Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago."  PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079   

Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II.  Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975."  PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp.  DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M.  Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago."  PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079   

Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

===Schools===

===Schools===

Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education."  ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in  Jstor]]</ref>

Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education."  ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in  Jstor]]</ref>