Changes

After the Great Schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in Western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed too.

After the Great Schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in Western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed too.

'''The most important pope in the first century of the new millennium was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.'''  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing “lay investiture,” by which non-church lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV because he insisted on installing bishops.  Henry IV then crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing Gregory to flee from Rome in 1084 in order to survive.  Pope Gregory then died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.  This conflict by Germany and Rome would emerge again with the Protestant Reformation hundreds of years later.

'''The most important pope in the first century of the new millennium was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.'''  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing “lay investiture,” by which non-church lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV because he insisted on installing bishops.  Henry IV then crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing Gregory to flee from Rome in 1084 in order to survive.  Pope Gregory then died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.  This conflict between Germany and Rome would emerge again with the Protestant Reformation hundreds of years later. Meanwhile, Christianity continued to grow in power based on the productive feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Muslim rule.   

Meanwhile, Christianity continued to grow in power based on the productive feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Muslim rule.   

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived (and still live) like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.   

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived (and still live) like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.   

In 1066, the biggest event in English history occurred: the Battle of Hastings.  The Normans invaded and conquered the island.  Based on winning this battle the Normans established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.  A few years later, in 1088, the first university in the world was established as the University of Bologna in Italy.

In 1066, the biggest event in English history occurred: the Battle of Hastings (near London today).  The Normans (Vikings who had settled in northwest France) invaded and conquered the British island.  Based on winning this battle the Normans established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.  A few years later, in 1088, the first university in the world was established as the University of Bologna in Italy.

The end of this important first century of the second millennium was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the victory of the Crusades, a controversial military expedition that we discuss next.

The end of this important first century of the second millennium was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the victory of the Crusades, a controversial military expedition that we discuss next.

'''The most famous military activity in the feudal period was the “Crusades”, a series of wars covering nearly 200 years, from A.D. 1096-1291.'''  The First Crusade was immensely successful.  To a lesser extent, the Third Crusade was also a success.  The other Crusades were not successful.

'''The most famous military activity in the feudal period was the “Crusades”, a series of wars covering nearly 200 years, from A.D. 1096-1291.'''  The First Crusade was immensely successful.  To a lesser extent, the Third Crusade was also a success.  The other Crusades were not successful.

The primary motivation of the Crusades was to make Jerusalem safe for Christian pilgrimages.  Fed up with reports of the murdering of defenseless Christian pilgrims, in 1095 Pope Urban II called for feudal knights to retake the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks.  At the time the Seljuk Turks were considered to be invincible fighters, having conquered Asia Minor and even defeating the once-mighty Byzantine empire.  Even now, as proven in wars such as the Korean War, Turkish soldiers are known to be incredibly tough and tenacious.  The communist torture and brainwashing of Western forces in the Korean War broke soldiers from every nation, including the United States, but had little effect on the Turkish soldiers, who were extremely tough mentally.

The primary motivation of the Crusades was to make Jerusalem safe for Christian pilgrimages.  Fed up with reports of the murdering of defenseless Christian pilgrims, in 1095 Pope Urban II called for feudal knights to retake the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks.  At the time the Seljuk Turks were considered to be invincible fighters, having conquered Asia Minor and even defeating the once-mighty Byzantine empire.  Even now, as proven in wars such as the Korean War, Turkish soldiers are known to be incredibly tough and tenacious.  The communist torture and brainwashing of Western forces in the Korean War broke soldiers from every nation, including the United States, but had little effect on the Turkish soldiers, who have always been extremely tough mentally.

The Seljuk Turks defeated all opponents, ruling from the 1000s to the 1200s.  They did particularly well under their ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Muslims were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Seljuk Turks defeated all opponents, ruling from the 1000s to the 1200s.  They did particularly well under their ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Muslims were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Muslims.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to give Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from feudal Western Europe.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Muslims.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to transfer Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from feudal Western Europe.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches ever.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because many wore a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches in history.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because many wore a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At first “Peter the Hermit” answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in a small first mission (not large enough to be called the “First Crusade”).  Peter the Hermit and his band of peasants failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by the Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans was formed.  This became known as the First Crusade.

“Peter the Hermit” answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in a small first mission (not large enough to be called the “First Crusade”).  Peter the Hermit and his band of peasants failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans followed.  This full effort was the First Crusade.

When these western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

When these western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

'''In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.'''  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory for the Western forces, and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

'''In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.'''  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory for the Western forces, and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades as never before in history, and perhaps never again.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  Of course not everyone who participated was so noble.  Criminals who fought in the Crusades were pardoned, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still, for the most part, this was a religious war fought by devout Christians.

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades as never before in history, and perhaps never again.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  Of course not everyone who participated was so noble.  Criminals fought in the Crusades to receive pardons, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still, for the most part, this was a religious war fought by devout Christians.

The Second Crusade in 1147-49, however, was a failure.  Then, in 1187, the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin.  A subsequent Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin in order to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  The partially successful Third Crusade was spearheaded by the leaders of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  Only King Richard saw this mission to its completion; the other leaders returned home after bickering, or drowned.  

The Second Crusade in 1147-49, however, was a failure.  Then, in 1187, the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin.  A subsequent Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin in order to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  The partially successful Third Crusade was spearheaded by the leaders of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  Only King Richard saw this mission to its completion; the other leaders returned home after bickering, or drowned.  

Two subsequent Crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.  The later Crusades lost their religious motivation.  Historians claim they were motivated by greed and ambition.

Two subsequent Crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, particularly by opponents of Christianity who describe it as unjust violence by Christians.  But historians agree that the impact of the Crusades on the world was enormous, even leading to Christopher Columbus (much later) to explore the New World.  '''The Crusades were, in fact, the biggest cause of the subsequent end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.'''  There are many reasons why:

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, particularly by opponents of Christianity who describe it as unjust violence by Christians.  Regardless, the impact of the Crusades on the world was enormous, even leading to Christopher Columbus (much later) to explore the New World.  '''The Crusades were, in fact, the biggest cause of the subsequent end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.'''  Here's why:

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

==The Mongols==

==The Mongols==