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At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches in history.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because many wore a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches in history.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because many wore a tunic with a large red cross on it.

“Peter the Hermit” answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in a small first mission (not large enough to be called the “First Crusade”).  Peter the Hermit and his band of peasants failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans followed.  This full effort was the First Crusade.

“Peter the Hermit” answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in a small first mission (not large enough to be called the “First Crusade”).  Peter the Hermit and his band of peasants failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans followed.  The subsequent all-out effort was the First Crusade.

When these western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

When these western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

The Mongols destroyed cities, irrigation systems, and anything else that they wanted to.  They were greatly feared.  They ruled so much land that they had to divide it into four regions:  Russia, China, central Asia and Persia.  The region of Russia is known as the Khanate of the Golden Horde.   

The Mongols destroyed cities, irrigation systems, and anything else that they wanted to.  They were greatly feared.  They ruled so much land that they had to divide it into four regions:  Russia, China, central Asia and Persia.  The region of Russia is known as the Khanate of the Golden Horde.   

Brutal in their military techniques, the Mongols added the Chinese warfare of gunpowder and the catapult to their fierce arsenal.  They seemed unstoppable and, in addition to conquering much of Asia (including present-day Russia), they also ruled what is now Poland, eastern Germany and Hungary by 1242.  They were finally beaten back by Egyptian Mamluks in a famous battle in Palestine, where for the first time another group was able to defeat the Mongols in tough hand-to-hand combat.  The furthest the Mongols could reach into Western Europe was the outskirts of Vienna.

Brutal in their military techniques, the Mongols added the Chinese invention of gunpowder and the catapult to their fierce arsenal.  They seemed unstoppable and, in addition to conquering much of Asia (including present-day Russia), they also ruled what is now Poland, eastern Germany and Hungary by 1242.  They were finally beaten back by Egyptian Mamluks in a famous battle in Palestine, where for the first time another group was able to defeat the Mongols in tough hand-to-hand combat.  The furthest the Mongols could reach into Western Europe was the outskirts of Vienna.

The Mongols enjoyed continued success in China, where Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty beginning in 1260, with its capital in present-day Beijing.  He connected the Huang He River with Beijing by extending the Grand Canal.  He promoted Buddhism and ended mandatory education in the teachings of Confucius.  He allowed freedom of religion.  He installed foreign administrators to manage the vast country.

The Mongols enjoyed continued success in China, where Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty beginning in 1260, with its capital in present-day Beijing.  He connected the Huang He River with Beijing by extending the Grand Canal.  He promoted Buddhism and ended mandatory education in the teachings of Confucius.  He allowed freedom of religion.  He installed foreign administrators to manage the vast country.

But every great conqueror in history has met its match, the one conquest that it could not do.  '''Alexander the Great didn’t take India and the Roman empire never conquered Germany.  The Mongols could not conquer Japan.'''  Twice they tried to cross the waters to reach Japan, in 1274 and 1281.  Each time an intense wind that the Japanese call the “kamikaze” turned back the Mongols.  It was not until World War II that a larger seaborne invasion of Japan was attempted by anyone.  The Mongols were also unable to conquer Cambodia or Vietnam.  But the Mongols did control Korea from 1231 to 1350.

But every great conqueror in history has met its match, the one conquest that it could not do.  '''Alexander the Great did not take India and the Roman empire never conquered Germany.  The Mongols could not conquer Japan.'''  Twice they tried to cross the waters to reach Japan, in 1274 and 1281.  Each time an intense wind that the Japanese call the “kamikaze” turned back the Mongols.  It was not until World War II that a larger seaborne invasion of Japan was attempted by anyone.  The Mongols were also unable to conquer Cambodia or Vietnam.  But the Mongols did control Korea from 1231 to 1350.

The Mongols retained control of the area known as “Eurasia”, which is the region where Europe and Asia meet.  It consists of flat grassland that lacks almost any trees, also called “steppe”.   

The Mongols retained control of the area known as “Eurasia”, which is the region where Europe and Asia meet.  It consists of flat grassland that lacks trees, also called the “steppe”.   

From the 1250s to 1350s, there was a period of “Mongol Peace” (“Pax Mongolica,” similar to “Pax Romana”) when traders were not harassed.  Some might say that traders were even protected by the Mongols along the Silk Road (also known as the Silk Routes), which were the old trade routes linking the Mediterranean world to China.

From the 1250s to 1350s, there was a period of “Mongol Peace” (“Pax Mongolica,” similar to “Pax Romana”) when traders were not harassed.  Some might say that traders were even protected by the Mongols along the Silk Road (also known as the Silk Routes), which were the old trade routes linking the Mediterranean world to China.

Inflation (weakening of the money) destroyed the Mongol empire, just as it destroyed so many other empires and countries.  The rulers kept printing more money and its value kept declining, until businessmen did not want to use it anymore and the money (and empire) thereby lost its influence.  Persia obtained its independence from the Mongols in 1335.  China rebelled against the worthless money also, ridding themselves of the Mongols in 1369, when the Chinese established their own Ming Dynasty.  But the Mongols remained a constant threat to China into the 1700s.

Inflation (weakening of the money) destroyed the Mongol empire, just as it destroyed so many other empires and countries.  The rulers kept printing more money and its value kept declining, until businessmen did not want to use it anymore and the money (and empire) thereby lost its influence.  Persia obtained its independence from the Mongols in 1335.  China rebelled against the worthless money too, ridding themselves of the Mongols in 1369, when the Chinese established their own Ming Dynasty.  But the Mongols remained a constant threat to China into the 1700s.

The collapse of the Mongol empire in Persia and Eastern Europe enabled the Ottoman (Muslim) Turks to rise to power.  They built their own empire then, which lasted until World War I and continues to influence Turkey to this day.

The collapse of the Mongol empire in Persia and Eastern Europe enabled the Ottoman (Muslim) Turks to rise to power.  They built their own empire then, which lasted until World War I and continues to influence Turkey to this day.