Changes

==Africa==

==Africa==

[[Image:Bantu migration.png|400px|right]]

[[Image:Bantu migration.png|400px|right]]

As we have already seen in this course, language played a central role in defining a society.  This was also true in sub-Saharan Africa (south of the Saharan desert), where the Bantu language was shared by peoples in West Africa prior to 1000 B.C.  Historians refer to the West Africans as “Bantu speakers” who lived along the rain forest on the edge of what is now Nigeria.  The Bantu speakers began migrating to the east and south of Africa around 2000 B.C. (see the movement from the region labeled as "1" in the top figure to the right), and this migration was at its peak between about 700 and 500 B.C. (forming the nucleus labeled as "9" in the bottom figure on the right).  By A.D. 1000, the migration southward (e.g., the three downward arrows labeled as "10" in the bottom figure on the right) had ceased and several Bantu kingdoms then arose in southern Africa.

As we have already seen in this course, language plays a central role in defining a society.  This was true again in sub-Saharan Africa (south of the Saharan desert), where the Bantu language was shared by peoples in West Africa prior to 1000 B.C.  Historians refer to the West Africans as “Bantu speakers” who lived along the rain forest on the edge of what is now Nigeria.  The Bantu speakers began migrating to the east and south of Africa around 2000 B.C. (see the movement from the region labeled as "1" in the first map below), and this migration was at its peak between 700 and 500 B.C. (forming the nucleus labeled as "9" in the second map below).  By A.D. 1000, the migration southward (e.g., the three downward arrows labeled as "10" in the second map) had ceased and several Bantu kingdoms then arose in southern Africa.

In eastern Africa, the Arabic language was influential.  When the Bantu language collided with Arabic, the result was the Swahili for the peoples of east Africa.

In eastern Africa, the Arabic language was influential.  When the Bantu language collided with Arabic, the result was the Swahili for the peoples of east Africa.

There was an active slave trade in Africa long before Americans began importing slaves in the early A.D. 1600s.  Muslims engaged in African slave trade across the Indian Ocean to the Far East and South Asia.  Africans captured fellow Africans and sold them into slavery, where they would work in households in faraway lands.  Typically the slaves sold to Muslim traders were from central and eastern Africa.  Slaves were the only type of private property that existed, so personal wealth depended on how many slaves one owned.

There was an active slave trade in Africa long before Americans began importing slaves in the early A.D. 1600s.  Muslims engaged in African slave trade across the Indian Ocean to the Far East and South Asia.  Africans captured fellow Africans and sold them into slavery, where they would work in households in faraway lands.  Typically the slaves sold to Muslim traders were from central and eastern Africa.  Slaves were the only type of private property that existed, so personal wealth depended on how many slaves one owned.

The term “age grade” refers to how people around the same age would gather in African tribes to perform work or share stories.  Both men and women shared in any farming work.

The term “age grade” refers to how people having the same age would gather in African tribes to perform work or share stories.  Both men and women shared in any farming work.

There were several empires in Africa.  In West Africa, the kingdoms thrived based on transporting and trading gold and salt across the Saharan desert.  Once the Berbers discovered how to use camels to take them across the desert in the A.D. 200s, trade across the desert began.  Ironically, salt became so important to preserving food and promoting health that it became almost as valuable as gold!  These empires in West Africa raised money by taxing the goods as they passed through their empires.  Islam was popular in West Africa and children were taught to read the Qu’ran in Arabic.

There were several empires in Africa.  In West Africa, the kingdoms thrived based on transporting and trading gold and salt across the Saharan desert.  Once the Berbers discovered how to use camels to take them across the desert in the A.D. 200s, trade across the desert began.  Ironically, salt became so important to preserving food and promoting health that it became almost as valuable as gold!  These empires in West Africa raised money by taxing the goods as they passed through their empires.  Islam was popular in West Africa and children were taught to read the Qu’ran in Arabic.

The Kingdom of Kongo was a Bantu-speaking society that lasted from sometime after A.D. 1000, to the A.D. 1500s.  It consisted of present-day Congo and Angola.  It declined once the Portuguese explored and invaded the east coast of Africa in the mid-1500s, and introduced the Catholic religion to the Kongo.   

'''The Kingdom of Kongo was a Bantu-speaking society that lasted from sometime after A.D. 1000, to the A.D. 1500s.''' This Kingdom consisted of present-day Congo and Angola.  It declined once the Portuguese explored and invaded the east coast of Africa in the mid-1500s, which introduced the Catholic religion to the Kongo.   

The Kingdom of Aksum, located in present-day Ethiopia, traced its roots of Aksum to the migration of Arabs across the Red Sea into Africa in 1000 B.C.  It had a written language called “Ge’ez” (a Semitic languge using Arabic characters) and controlled the southwestern portion of the Arabian Peninsula.  The peak of its power was under the strong ruler named Ezrana in A.D. 325-360.  Ezrana conquered Kush and destroyed the city of Meroe.  He also converted to Christianity and a Coptic Church formed in the Aksum kingdom.  Aksum developed a coin currency and a unique architectural style called a “stele”, which consisted of large stone pillars.  But in A.D. 710, the Muslims conquered Aksum and destroyed its big trading city known as Adulis.

'''The Kingdom of Aksum, located in present-day Ethiopia, traced its roots of Aksum to the migration of Arabs across the Red Sea into Africa in 1000 B.C.''' It had a written language called “Ge’ez” (a Semitic languge using Arabic characters) and controlled the southwestern portion of the Arabian Peninsula.  The peak of its power was under a strong ruler named Ezrana in A.D. 325-360.  Ezrana conquered Kush and destroyed the city of Meroe.  He also converted to Christianity and a Coptic Church formed in the Aksum kingdom.  Aksum developed a coin currency and a unique architectural style called a “stele”, which consisted of large stone pillars.  But in A.D. 710, the Muslims conquered Aksum and destroyed its big trading city known as Adulis.

The Kingdom of Ghana (A.D. 800-1076), Mali (A.D. 1235-1403) and Songhai (A.D. 1403-1591) were all located in West Africa and were mostly Muslim.  Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler who toured the Islamic regions of the world around A.D. 1352, wrote of his admiration of Mali.  All these West African empires thrived under strong rulers and the very active gold-salt trade across the Sahara.  Trade was based on leopard skins, slaves, pepper, ivory, bronze, brass and copper.  A society known as Hansa was famous for its leather goods and cloth.  But by A.D. 1500 both Islamic countries and Christian European countries were gaining influence in Africa.

'''The Kingdom of Ghana (A.D. 800-1076), Mali (A.D. 1235-1403) and Songhai (A.D. 1403-1591) were all located in West Africa and were mostly Muslim.''' Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler who toured the Islamic regions of the world around A.D. 1352, wrote of his admiration of Mali.  All these West African empires thrived under strong rulers and the very active gold-salt trade across the Sahara.  Trade was based on leopard skins, slaves, pepper, ivory, bronze, brass and copper.  A society known as Hansa was famous for its leather goods and cloth.  But by A.D. 1500 both Islamic countries and Christian European countries were gaining influence in Africa.

The [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] existed from southeastern Africa to the Indian Ocean around A.D. 1200s to the 1500s.  Like other African empires, the city of Great Zimbabwe was build on trade, particularly gold.  Numerous Swahili towns in this region of Africa profited from trade in slaves, ivory and goods from Persia, China and India, such as cotton, silk and perfumes.

'''The [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] existed from southeastern Africa to the Indian Ocean around A.D. 1200s to the 1500s.''' Like other African empires, the city of Great Zimbabwe was built on trade, particularly gold.  Numerous Swahili towns in this region of Africa profited from trade in slaves, ivory and goods from Persia, China and India, such as cotton, silk and perfumes.

Islam and Christianity both spread in Africa, and still do today.  However, the Africans would often retain some of their tribal customs.  Historians claim that the Africans treated women better under tribal customs than under Islam, citing less use of the veil by women in African societies than Arab Muslim societies.  African Christians also had conflicts with principles of faith established by European Christians, such as issues related to the divinity of Christ, although the Catholic Church today is growing much faster in Africa than in Europe.  Coptic Christians in Egypt slightly differ from European Christians in their view of Christ, and they split in A.D. 451.

Islam and Christianity both spread in Africa, and still do today.  However, the Africans would often retain some of their tribal customs.  Historians claim that the Africans treated women better under tribal customs than under Islam, citing less use of the veil by women in African societies than Arab Muslim societies.  African Christians also had conflicts with principles of faith established by European Christians, such as issues related to the divinity of Christ, although the Catholic Church today is growing much faster in Africa than in Europe.  Coptic Christians in Egypt slightly differ from European Christians in their view of Christ, and they split in A.D. 451.

Islam was more popular in North Africa, where it became the main religion for the peoples bordering the Mediterranean Sea.  The Berbers converted to Islam, and then merged with the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties to bring North Africa under Muslim rule by the end of the seventh century.  From northern Africa, the Muslims entered and conquered southern Spain, where they were known as Moors.  The Muslims then increased trade with other African peoples and regions bordering in the Indian Ocean.  The Almoravid dynasty conquered Morocco in the A.D. 1000s and Ghana and parts of southern Spain in A.D. 1076.  By the mid-1100s, the Almoravids conquered the Almohads also.

Islam was more popular in North Africa, where it became the main religion for the peoples bordering the Mediterranean Sea.  The Berbers converted to Islam, and then merged with the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties to bring North Africa under Muslim rule by the end of the seventh century.  From northern Africa, the Muslims entered and conquered southern Spain, where they were known as Moors.  The Muslims then increased trade with other African peoples and regions bordering in the Indian Ocean.  The Almoravid dynasty conquered Morocco in the A.D. 1000s and Ghana and parts of southern Spain in A.D. 1076.  By the mid-1100s, the Almoravids conquered the Almohads also.

Meanwhile, Christianity had some success in East Africa, and particularly in what is now Ethiopia.  Trade between East Africa and central Africa and the Indian Ocean flourished both under the Muslims in East Africa and, later, the Portuguese.

Meanwhile, Christianity had some success in East Africa, and particularly in what is now Ethiopia.  Trade between eastern and central Africa and the Indian Ocean flourished both under the Muslims in East Africa and, later, the Portuguese.

==Oceania==

==Oceania==