Changes

==Nation-States in Europe==

==Nation-States in Europe==

After the Crusades, the kings and the Catholic Church had much more power.  Feudalism had been weakened by the Crusades.  This set the stage for a rise in power of the nation-states that exist today.  The threat of foreign invasions was diminished and feudalism, with its strong defensive system, was no longer needed.  With new stability, trade began to flourish once again.  The European population tripled between A.D. 1000 and 1300.   

Feudalism was weakened by the Crusades.  This set the stage for a rise in power of the nation-states that exist today.  The threat of foreign invasions was diminished and feudalism, with its strong defensive system, was no longer needed.  With new stability, trade began to flourish once again.  The European population tripled between A.D. 1000 and 1300.  The Catholic Church also became more powerful due to the Crusades.

Towns began to grow, and merchants formed “guilds”, which were organizations to establish rules and fairness in trade.  Guilds were led by men, but both men and women could be members of a guild.  The practice of apprenticeship began during this time period, by which teenagers could receive training from master craftsmen.  A middle class arose, comprised of bankers, merchants and craftsman, and was known as the “burgess” in England, the “bourgeoisie” in France, and the “burgher” in Germany.  As prosperity grew, there was also a rise in banking and investment, and gold coins were used as currency.  An agricultural revolution occurred, bringing improvements such as new plows, harnesses and farming methods.  Feudalism declined as many serfs could leave the manors:  food surpluses occurred, population increased, and overall wealth increased.

Towns began to grow, and merchants formed “guilds”, which were organizations to establish rules and fairness in trade.  Guilds were led by men, but both men and women could be members of a guild.  The practice of apprenticeship began during this time period, by which teenagers could receive training from master craftsmen.  A middle class arose, comprised of bankers, merchants and craftsman, and was known as the “burgess” in England, the “bourgeoisie” in France, and the “burgher” in Germany.  As prosperity grew, there was also a rise in banking and investment, and gold coins were used as currency.  An agricultural revolution occurred, bringing improvements such as new plows, harnesses and farming methods.  Few farmers were needed as more food was produced by more productive technology and methods.  Feudalism declined as many serfs could leave the manors:  food surpluses occurred, population increased, and overall wealth increased.

But then disaster struck.  '''An epidemic of the bubonic plague known as the Black Death swept through Europe and many parts of Asia between 1347 and 1351'''.  The plague was spread by rats and other rodents, and spread rapidly along trade routes and especially the Silk Road.  It originated amongst the crude Mongols in Asia, who carelessly allowed their sacks of food to be exposed to rats and fleas that carried the fatal disease.  Traders brought it with them into the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe.  In four short years, 40 to 45% of the European population died from the plague, especially the poor.  Incredibly, the Mongols amplified the problem by using catapults to toss plague-ridden bodies over city walls to attack their enemies.  The modern world is not the first to use biological warfare.

But then disaster struck.  '''An epidemic of the bubonic plague known as the Black Death swept through Europe and many parts of Asia between 1347 and 1351'''.  The plague was spread by rats and other rodents, and spread rapidly along trade routes and especially the Silk Road.  It originated amongst the crude Mongols in Asia, who carelessly allowed their sacks of food to be exposed to rats and fleas that carried the fatal disease.  Traders brought it with them into the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe.  In four short years, 40 to 45% of the European population died from the plague, especially among the poor.  Incredibly, the Mongols amplified the problem by using catapults to toss plague-ridden bodies over city walls to attack their enemies.  The modern world is not the first to use biological warfare.

The fatality rate was even higher in China, where an estimated 25 million died from it.  It took 100 years for Europe and China to recover, and a longer period of time for Islamic countries and the Middle East to recover also.  Egypt was hit particularly hard, with some areas not recovering for 500 years.

The fatality rate was even higher in China, where an estimated 25 million died from it.  It took 100 years for Europe and China to recover, and a longer period of time for Islamic countries and the Middle East to recover also.  Egypt was hit particularly hard, with some areas not recovering for 500 years.

The plague weakened the Catholic Church, which appeared helpless to stop it.

The plague weakened the Catholic Church, which appeared helpless to stop it.

After the plague began to subside in the 1350s, the loss of life from the plague caused severe worker shortages and even rebellions as workers demanded higher pay.  This was an example of hardship resulting from too few people, a lesson that should be remembered today in the context of abortion.  What remained of feudalism collapsed as there were too few workers.  The plague also created a demand for more centralized government that could respond effectively to disease.

After the plague began to subside in the 1350s, the loss of life from it caused severe worker shortages and even rebellions as workers demanded higher pay.  This was an example of hardship resulting from too few people, not too many.  What remained of feudalism collapsed due to too few workers.  Even today, while some try to pretend there are too many people, serious problems could be solved by having more people, not less (such as having more people to distribute food to the poor).  Another harmful effect of the plague was to create a demand for more centralized government that could respond effectively to disease.

===England===

===England===

The rise of a centralized government in England began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold.  In 1066 William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold.  William the Conqueror prevailed over England and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords.  The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England.  In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.”  Royal judges traveled throughout the land, and their decisions established an English “common law,” which has greatly influenced law in the United States and continues to this day.  William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a remarkable woman who had two husbands and two sons who were kings.   

The rise of a centralized government in England began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold.  The Anglo-Saxons were Germanic tribes who settled in England in the AD 400s.  But in 1066, William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold.  William the Conqueror prevailed over England and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords.  The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England for the future.  In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.”  Royal judges traveled throughout the land, and their decisions established an English “common law,” which has greatly influenced law in the United States and continues to this day.  William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, and her sons became kings too.   

Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade.  Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”.  History and myth surrounding these two men have been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe.  Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund the war.  They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles.  It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation.  The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (which later became known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (which became the “House of Lords”).  These parliamentary bodies -- the House of Commons and the House of Lords -- govern Britain to this day.

Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade.  Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”.  History and myth surrounding these two men have been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe.  Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund the war.  They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles.  It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation.  The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (which later became known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (which became the “House of Lords”).  These parliamentary bodies -- the House of Commons and the House of Lords -- govern Britain to this day.