Changes

===Germany===

===Germany===

Germans were dissatisfied with the Confederation established by the Vienna settlement, and the Frankfurt Assembly attempted unsuccessfully to unify in 1848.  Prussia, the strongest “German” state, established a “Customs Union” — which resembled a national market system — and parliament.  King Wilhelm I of Prussia chose Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck in 1862.  Fiercely patriotic to his native Prussia, Bismarck believed in “Realpolitik” (translation: “reality politics”) and sought to unify Germany under Prussian control.  He believed the only way this could be done was by creating a war with a foreign adversary, which would have the effect of unifying the German people against the common enemy.

Germans were dissatisfied with the Confederation established by the Vienna settlement, and the Frankfurt Assembly attempted unsuccessfully to unify in 1848.  Prussia, the strongest “German” state, established a “Customs Union” — which resembled a national market system — and a parliament.  King Wilhelm I of Prussia selected Otto von Bismarck to be Prime Minister in 1862.  Fiercely patriotic to his native Prussia, Bismarck believed in “Realpolitik” (translation: “reality politics”) and sought to unify Germany under Prussian control.  He believed the only way this could be done was by creating a war with a foreign adversary, which would have the effect of unifying the German people against the common enemy.

Bismarck’s motto by which he waged this war was “by blood and iron.”  Lacking Parliament’s approval, Bismarck forced the northern states to join the Northern German Confederation.  When the southern states would not also join, Bismarck tricked France into declaring the Franco-Prussian War, which Prussia won.  This accomplished Bismarck’s goal of creating southern Germany, which was now willing to accept Prussian rule.  Then, in 1871, the North and South were united into the new German Empire, the “Second Reich,” and Wilhelm was made “kaiser” (A German word for “Caesar” or emperor, used primarily between 1871 to 1918).  Hence Germany became a nation.

Bismarck’s motto by which he waged this war was “by blood and iron.”  Lacking Parliament’s approval, Bismarck forced the northern states to join the Northern German Confederation.  When the southern states would not also join, Bismarck tricked France into declaring the Franco-Prussian War, which Prussia won.  This accomplished Bismarck’s goal of creating southern Germany, which was now willing to accept Prussian rule.  Then, in 1871, the North and South were united into the new German Empire, the “Second Reich,” and Wilhelm was made “kaiser” (A German word for “Caesar” or emperor, used primarily between 1871 to 1918).  Hence Germany became a nation.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.”<ref>http://www.m-w.com</ref>  More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.”<ref>http://www.m-w.com</ref>  More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

The motivations for imperialism were obvious:  power and money.  Every ruler dreams of an empire, and imperialism meant more territory to wield power over.  Every ruler wants to be like Caesar or Napoleon.  There were financial incentives for imperialism also.  Industrial Europe needed raw materials to use in manufacturing, and also wanted customers to sell their finished products to.  Colonies gave the mother countries both the raw materials at the beginning of the industrial process and new markets for selling the products at the end of the process.

The motivations for imperialism were power and money.  Every ruler dreams of an empire, and imperialism meant more territory to wield power over.  Every ruler wants to be like Caesar or Napoleon.  There were financial incentives for imperialism also.  Industrial Europe needed raw materials to use in manufacturing, and also wanted customers to sell their finished products to.  Colonies gave the mother countries both the raw materials at the beginning of the industrial process and new markets for selling the products at the end of the process.

In general, there were four patterns that Europeans used in their imperialism:

In general, there were four patterns that Europeans used in their imperialism:

To minimize armed conflict the Europeans held the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885 to divide Africa among themselves, without regard to what the tribes of Africa wanted.  Ethnic and cultural differences within Africa were also ignored, and lines of demarcation were arbitrarily drawn for the sole benefit of the European nations.  All of Africa except for Ethiopia (which successfully resisted Italian control in 1896) and Liberia were divided and taken by European nations.

To minimize armed conflict the Europeans held the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885 to divide Africa among themselves, without regard to what the tribes of Africa wanted.  Ethnic and cultural differences within Africa were also ignored, and lines of demarcation were arbitrarily drawn for the sole benefit of the European nations.  All of Africa except for Ethiopia (which successfully resisted Italian control in 1896) and Liberia were divided and taken by European nations.

One of Africa’s biggest and wealthiest countries today is South Africa, located on the southern tip of the continent.  It has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to India and the Far East.  As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry completely ruled South Africa until the late 1900s.  Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups, but since then violence has plagued this country and many have left it.  The World Cup (soccer) will be played in 2010 in South Africa, the first time it has ever been held in Africa.

One of Africa’s biggest and wealthiest countries today is South Africa, located on the southern tip of the continent.  It has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to India and the Far East.  As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry completely ruled South Africa until the late 1900s.  Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups, but since then violence has plagued this country and many have left it.  The World Cup (a soccer tournament) was played in 2010 in South Africa, the first time it has ever been held in Africa.

The Dutch (or Boers) were the first to establish a European settlement in southern Africa, at Cape Colony on the very southern tip in 1652.  This port supplied ships on the way to the Indian Ocean.  The Dutch exploited the labor of African slaves and set up farming communities that displaced the native Africans.  In the 1800s the British arrived and took over Cape Colony, and disfavored the continuation of the Dutch slavery system.  The Dutch then moved inland, further north, in what is called the Great Trek.  This created further conflict with the native Africans.

The Dutch (or Boers) were the first to establish a European settlement in southern Africa, at Cape Colony on the very southern tip in 1652.  This port supplied ships on the way to the Indian Ocean.  The Dutch exploited the labor of African slaves and set up farming communities that displaced the native Africans.  In the 1800s the British arrived and took over Cape Colony, and disfavored the continuation of the Dutch slavery system.  The Dutch then moved inland, further north, in what is called the Great Trek.  This created further conflict with the native Africans.

==== China ====

==== China ====

China deliberately isolated itself from the West, allowing only one port in southern China to conduct trade with Europe:  Guangzhou.  But the British learned that the Chinese people (like many people worldwide) became easily addicted to opium, a terrible drug that is illegal today.  In the late 1700s the British took advantage of this addiction and began sending massive amounts of opium to China.  At one point a Chinese government official wrote a letter to Queen Victoria begging her to stop this.  In 1839 the Opium War broke out over this issue, but the British defeated the Chinese and the Treaty of Nanjing gave the British the key port of Hong Kong, which it held until just a few years ago.  Another treaty in 1844 gave other western powers, including France, Germany, Russia and even the United States, extraterritorial or foreign rights to four additional ports, along with special exemptions from Chinese law.

China deliberately isolated itself from the West, allowing only one port in southern China to conduct trade with Europe:  Guangzhou.  But the British learned that the Chinese people (like many people worldwide) became easily addicted to opium, a terrible drug that is illegal today.  In the late 1700s the British took advantage of this addiction and began sending massive amounts of opium to China.  At one point a Chinese government official wrote a letter to Queen Victoria begging her to stop this.  In 1839 the Opium War broke out over this issue, but the British defeated the Chinese and the Treaty of Nanjing gave the British the key port of Hong Kong, which it held until 1997.  Another treaty in 1844 gave other western powers, including France, Germany, Russia and even the United States, extraterritorial or foreign rights to four additional ports, along with special exemptions from Chinese law.

The opium drug problem continued and in 1850 a Christian heretic named Hong Xiuquan led the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in order to rid the country of opium and establish a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.”  Declaring himself to be the second son of God and the younger brother of the Messiah, Hong conquered much of southeastern China, but lost it back to the Qing Empire in 1864.  Historians estimate that 20 million were left dead from these conflicts, and consider this Rebellion to have been one of the most deadly in all of history.

The opium drug problem continued and in 1850 a Christian heretic named Hong Xiuquan led the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in order to rid the country of opium and establish a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.”  Declaring himself to be the second son of God and the younger brother of the Messiah, Hong conquered much of southeastern China, but lost it back to the Qing Empire in 1864.  Historians estimate that 20 million were left dead from these conflicts, and consider this Rebellion to have been one of the most deadly in all of history.

Japan was one of the imperialistic powers that eventually threatened China.  Even though much smaller than China, Japan has a military culture that seemed invincible until the United States dropped two atom bombs on it in August 1945.

Japan was one of the imperialistic powers that eventually threatened China.  Even though much smaller than China, Japan has a military culture that seemed invincible until the United States dropped two atom bombs on it in August 1945.

But Japan was similar to China in one respect:  both were very suspicious of Europeans and both preferred isolation over European influence.  In 1543, shipwrecked Portuguese sailors discovered Japan and they were welcomed.  In 1549, some Japanese welcomed European Christian missionaries and liked the European technology that they brought to the island.  European technology, especially firearms, helped the Tokugawa Shogunate unify Japan in 1603 and establish its capital at Edo (now Tokyo), and that family ruled Japan until 1868.  European cannons easily punched through the castle walls of the daimyo (large Japanese landowners).  In some areas fortified walls were built, which sheltered communities for artisans, merchants and government bureaucracy.

Japan was similar to China in one respect:  both were very suspicious of Europeans and both preferred isolation over European influence.  In 1543, shipwrecked Portuguese sailors discovered Japan and they were welcomed.  In 1549, some Japanese welcomed European Christian missionaries and liked the European technology that they brought to the island.  European technology, especially firearms, helped the Tokugawa Shogunate unify Japan in 1603 and establish its capital at Edo (now Tokyo), and that family ruled Japan until 1868.  European cannons easily punched through the castle walls of the daimyo (large Japanese landowners).  In some areas fortified walls were built, which sheltered communities for artisans, merchants and government bureaucracy.

But by 1637, the spread of Christianity in Japan caused a retaliation and persecution of Christians.  Japan then closed its doors to the West and kept only one port, Nagasaki (later destroyed with an atom bomb in 1945), open for merchants from China and the Netherlands.

But by 1637, the spread of Christianity in Japan caused a retaliation and persecution of Christians.  Japan then closed its doors to the West and kept only one port, Nagasaki (later destroyed with an atom bomb in 1945), open for merchants from China and the Netherlands.

Japan felt it was invincible.  It next took on Russia and defeated it in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.  Japan destroyed the Russian fleet and received control of the southern portion of the Chinese Eastern Railway and a lease on the Liaodong Peninsula, including Port Arthur, in its Treaty of Portsmouth with Russia.  Russia withdrew from Manchuria and promised to stay out of Korea.

Japan felt it was invincible.  It next took on Russia and defeated it in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.  Japan destroyed the Russian fleet and received control of the southern portion of the Chinese Eastern Railway and a lease on the Liaodong Peninsula, including Port Arthur, in its Treaty of Portsmouth with Russia.  Russia withdrew from Manchuria and promised to stay out of Korea.

There was even more to Japan’s aggression.  Japan took over Korea and annexed it in 1910.  This alarmed the rest of the world, making everyone wonder if and when Japan would stop expanding.  Japan took over Korea’s schools and taught the children in a way that favored Japan.  Japan also took over the presses (media) in Korea, thereby controlling what was said.  Japan completely dominated Korea.  Japan’s land policies favored Japanese settlers.  An underground nationalist movement in Korea began to grow, with resentment towards Japan.  Many Koreans and Chinese are resentful of Japan to this day.

Japan took over Korea and annexed it in 1910.  This alarmed the rest of the world, making everyone wonder if and when Japan would stop expanding.  Japan took over Korea’s schools and taught the children in a way that favored Japan.  Japan also took over the presses (media) in Korea, thereby controlling what was said.  Japan completely dominated Korea.  Japan’s land policies favored Japanese settlers.  An underground nationalist movement in Korea began to grow, with resentment towards Japan.  Many Koreans and Chinese are resentful of Japan to this day.

The story of Japan during this period can be summed up in one sentence: Japan started out as a target of imperialism and ended up as one of the most imperialistic nations of all.

So Japan was initially a target of imperialism but eventually ended up as being one of the most imperialistic nations of all!

=== Latin America ===

=== Latin America ===

Democratic President Jimmy Carter arranged for the United States to agree to give the canal back to Panama in the late 1900s, even though Americans paid for its construction.  President Carter claimed the Canal was part of improper imperialism or colonization by the United States in Latin America.  In New Jersey, a Republican Senator who favored the give-back treaty was defeated in his own primary for reelection, reflecting enormous public disapproval of the treaty.  Today Panama allows communist China to run the canal.

Democratic President Jimmy Carter arranged for the United States to agree to give the canal back to Panama in the late 1900s, even though Americans paid for its construction.  President Carter claimed the Canal was part of improper imperialism or colonization by the United States in Latin America.  In New Jersey, a Republican Senator who favored the give-back treaty was defeated in his own primary for reelection, reflecting enormous public disapproval of the treaty.  Today Panama allows communist China to run the canal.

The Monroe Doctrine has an important corollary today, known as the Roosevelt Corollary, announced by the aggressive President Teddy Roosevelt in 1904.  Under the Roosevelt Corollary the United States may intervene in and occupy any country in Latin America to protect interests of the United States.  Communism remains a threat to the United States in the Latin American countries of Cuba and Venezuela, and in recent years the president of Venezuela (Hugo Chavez) called President Bush the “devil” in a speech given before the United Nations.

The Monroe Doctrine has an important corollary today, known as the Roosevelt Corollary, announced by the aggressive President Teddy Roosevelt in 1904.  Under the Roosevelt Corollary the United States may intervene in and occupy any country in Latin America to protect interests of the United States.  Communism remains a threat to the United States in the Latin American countries of Cuba and Venezuela, and in 2006 the president of Venezuela (Hugo Chavez) called President Bush the “devil” in a speech given before the United Nations.

=== British India ===

=== British India ===

When the Civil War broke out in America, and the South expected Britain to intervene on its side in order to protect the production of cotton, Britain turned to Indian cotton instead.  Britain also benefited from many other forms of agriculture or raw materials from India:  indigo, coffee, tea, jute and even opium (now an illegal drug).  The British would profit by selling the opium to the Chinese, which caused addiction and severe problems for China.

When the Civil War broke out in America, and the South expected Britain to intervene on its side in order to protect the production of cotton, Britain turned to Indian cotton instead.  Britain also benefited from many other forms of agriculture or raw materials from India:  indigo, coffee, tea, jute and even opium (now an illegal drug).  The British would profit by selling the opium to the Chinese, which caused addiction and severe problems for China.

To be fair, the British also brought immense improvements in India, building roads, railroads, hospitals, schools, and improving the overall infrastructure and sanitation.  The British also encouraged Christian missionaries in India, although they had only limited success in converting Indians from Hinduism and Islam, both of which remain more popular than Christianity there.  The British also brought the English language to India, where it is spoken widely today.  Certainly the British conferred enormous benefits on India, and there is a friendly relationship between the two countries to this day.  The two nations have a friendly rivalry in cricket, which is the British counterpart of American baseball.

To be fair, the British also brought immense improvements in India, building roads, railroads, hospitals, schools, and improving the overall infrastructure and sanitation.  The British also encouraged Christian missionaries in India, although they had only limited success in converting Indians from Hinduism and Islam, both of which remain more popular than Christianity there.  The British also brought the English language to India, where it is spoken widely today.  Certainly the British conferred enormous benefits on India, and there is a friendly relationship between the two countries to this day.  The two nations have a rivalry in cricket, which is the British counterpart of American baseball.

In fact, Christianity pre-dates the British Empire in India by a long way. The [[Oriental Orthodox]] religion was established in Kerala, a state in south-west India, very early in the history of Christianity, reputedly by St Thomas ("Doubting Thomas"). The Portuguese, who established trading posts in western India in the 15th Century, introduced Roman Catholicism. Nowadays, about 5% of Indians are Christian, mostly in the southern states, and the majority of these are Catholic. Christianity continues to be the most common religion in Kerala. Outside Kerala, most Christians belong to the poorest, most downtrodden [[caste]]s, but some have achieved distinction as politicians, academics and sportsmen. The Christian churches - Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant - have an important role in running charities such as hospitals and schools in India, especially the South, second only to the [[Gandhi]]an movement.

In fact, Christianity predates the British Empire in India by a long way. The [[Oriental Orthodox]] religion was established in Kerala, a state in southwest India, very early in the history of Christianity, reputedly by Thomas the Apostle ("Doubting Thomas"). The Portuguese, who established trading posts in western India in the 15th Century, introduced Roman Catholicism. Nowadays, about 5% of Indians are Christian, mostly in the southern states, and the majority of these are Catholic. Christianity continues to be the most common religion in Kerala. Outside Kerala, most Christians belong to the poorest, most downtrodden [[caste]]s, but some have achieved distinction as politicians, academics and sportsmen. The Christian churches - Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant - have an important role in running charities such as hospitals and schools in India, especially the South, second only to the [[Gandhi]]an movement.

British rule in India lasted for a 200-year period known as the Raj (1757-1947).  Inevitable demands for independence in India began as early as 1857, when Indian soldiers (“sepoys”) acquired new cartridge-based rifles.  Soldiers were instructed to bite off the cartridge seals before loading the cartridges into the rifles and firing them.  But then a rumor spread that the cartridges were sealed with beef fat (prohibited by Hinduism) and pork fat (prohibited by Islam).  Many were angered by this rumor, and in the Sepoy Rebellion or Sepoy Mutiny, Indians revolted against the British in northern India.  The British suppressed it and continued to rule India directly.

British rule in India lasted for a 200-year period known as the Raj (1757-1947).  Inevitable demands for independence in India began as early as 1857, when Indian soldiers (“sepoys”) acquired new cartridge-based rifles.  Soldiers were instructed to bite off the cartridge seals before loading the cartridges into the rifles and firing them.  But then a rumor spread that the cartridges were sealed with beef fat (prohibited by Hinduism) and pork fat (prohibited by Islam).  Many were angered by this rumor, and in the Sepoy Rebellion or Sepoy Mutiny, Indians revolted against the British in northern India.  The British suppressed it and continued to rule India directly.