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In a completely unrelated move, Italy invaded one of the last remaining independent nations in Africa:  Ethiopia.  In the 1890s, Ethiopia had fought off the Italians, but Mussolini was back for revenge.  He easily conquered Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and, again, the League of Nations could do nothing when Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie begged for help.

In a completely unrelated move, Italy invaded one of the last remaining independent nations in Africa:  Ethiopia.  In the 1890s, Ethiopia had fought off the Italians, but Mussolini was back for revenge.  He easily conquered Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and, again, the League of Nations could do nothing when Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie begged for help.

By 1935 Hitler was rearming Germany, and in 1936 he moved German troops into the buffer zone separating Germany from France:  the industrialized Rhineland.  This violated the Treaty of Versailles but no one did anything to stop it, including the powerless League of Nations.  Mussolini thought it best to ally Italy with Germany, and in October 1936 they formed the Rome-Berlin Axis.  Japan allied with Germany the following month, and unified the Axis Powers in 1937. In 1940, Italy, Germany, and Japan all joined together in the [[Tripartite Pact]] and officially created the Axis Powers.

By 1935 Hitler was rearming Germany, and in 1936 he moved German troops into the buffer zone separating Germany from France:  the industrialized Rhineland.  This violated the Treaty of Versailles but no one did anything to stop it, including the powerless League of Nations.  Mussolini thought it best to ally Italy with Germany, and in October 1936 they formed the Rome-Berlin Axis.  Japan allied with Germany the following month, and the unified Germany-Italy-Japan Axis Powers formed in 1937. In 1940, Italy, Germany, and Japan all joined together in the [[Tripartite Pact]] and officially created the Axis Powers.

Hitler was just warming up.  Next he wanted to annex Austria to Germany, as they had been combined in the past.  Hitler himself was born in Austria and many Austrians supported joining Germany.  So Hitler annexed Austria on March 12, 1938 without much resistance, and this is known as the Anschluss (unification of Austria and Germany).  France and Britain had promised to defend the independence of Austria, but did nothing.

Hitler was just warming up.  Next he wanted to annex Austria to Germany, as they had been combined in the past.  Hitler himself was born in Austria and many Austrians supported joining Germany.  So Hitler annexed Austria on March 12, 1938 without much resistance, and this is known as the Anschluss (unification of Austria and Germany).  France and Britain had promised to defend the independence of Austria, but did nothing.

In June 1942, the Japanese brought together the largest naval force in the world near Midway Island in the Pacific.  The American cryptographers had by this time deciphered enough of the Japanese messages to know that there was going to be an attack on Midway, and they knew roughly when the attack would occur.  When the Japanese did attack, there was an American force waiting for them.  On a reconnaissance mission an alert American pilot with superb eyesight spotted the Japanese fleet on the distant horizon.  That gave the Americans the advantage of surprise, as the Japanese were not expecting the Americans to be ready. General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the Allied land forces in the Pacific, then embarked on a strategy of island-hopping to capture strategic islands surrounding Japanese positions.  The Japanese, who were trained not to surrender, fought tenaciously for months before succumbing to American and Australian forces in the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

In June 1942, the Japanese brought together the largest naval force in the world near Midway Island in the Pacific.  The American cryptographers had by this time deciphered enough of the Japanese messages to know that there was going to be an attack on Midway, and they knew roughly when the attack would occur.  When the Japanese did attack, there was an American force waiting for them.  On a reconnaissance mission an alert American pilot with superb eyesight spotted the Japanese fleet on the distant horizon.  That gave the Americans the advantage of surprise, as the Japanese were not expecting the Americans to be ready. General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the Allied land forces in the Pacific, then embarked on a strategy of island-hopping to capture strategic islands surrounding Japanese positions.  The Japanese, who were trained not to surrender, fought tenaciously for months before succumbing to American and Australian forces in the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

With the help of Americans, the Allies began to win victories against the Axis Powers in Europe.  In late 1942, the Allies won the Battle of El Alamein, and in May 1943 General Dwight Eisenhower led the Allies to a victory against the feared Afrika Korps.  Russia continued to hold its own in Stalingrad against the German army.  

The Allies began to win victories against the Axis Powers in Europe.  In late 1942, the Allies won the Battle of El Alamein, and with the help of Americans in May 1943 General Dwight Eisenhower led the Allies to a victory against the feared Afrika Korps.  Russia continued to hold its own in Stalingrad against the German army.  

From northern Africa the Allies were able to invade Sicily in southern Italy, and oust Mussolini from power.  The Germans restored him to power, but on June 4, 1944 the Allies broke through to Rome and by April 1945 the Germans were evacuating Italy.  Mussolini was then found hiding in a truck.  He was promptly shot and hung in a public square in Milan.

From northern Africa the Allies were able to invade Sicily in southern Italy, and oust Mussolini from power.  The Germans restored him to power, but on June 4, 1944 the Allies broke through to Rome and by April 1945 the Germans were evacuating Italy.  Mussolini was then found hiding in a truck.  He was promptly shot and hung in a public square in Milan.

Technology played a key role in the Cold War.  The United States developed the atomic bomb in 1945.  Using secrets stolen from the United States, the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949.  To stay one step ahead, the United States developed the far more powerful hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) in 1952.  This used nuclear fusion and is called a “thermonuclear weapon.”  The Soviet Union developed an H-bomb for itself nine months later.  Both nations began to develop huge inventories of these bombs, and advocated a policy of “brinkmanship” or the willingness to do whatever was necessary to defend their interests.

Technology played a key role in the Cold War.  The United States developed the atomic bomb in 1945.  Using secrets stolen from the United States, the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949.  To stay one step ahead, the United States developed the far more powerful hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) in 1952.  This used nuclear fusion and is called a “thermonuclear weapon.”  The Soviet Union developed an H-bomb for itself nine months later.  Both nations began to develop huge inventories of these bombs, and advocated a policy of “brinkmanship” or the willingness to do whatever was necessary to defend their interests.

Spying between the nations took advantages of improvements in space technology.  First both the United States and Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to shoot each other with nuclear arms.  Then the Soviet Union launched the first unmanned satellite, known as Sputnik I, into outer space in 1957.  This greatly alarmed Americans, and the United States responded by launching its own satellite in 1958 and later initiating a mission to land on the Moon.

The Cold War took advantage of improvements in space technology.  First both the United States and Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to shoot each other with nuclear arms.  Then the Soviet Union launched the first unmanned satellite, known as Sputnik I, into outer space in 1957.  This greatly alarmed Americans, and the United States responded by launching its own satellite in 1958 and later initiating a mission to land on the Moon.

Americans developed a spy plane that could fly undetected at very high altitudes, called the “U-2”.  When one fell to the earth (possibly shot down) in Soviet territory in 1960, President Eisenhower arranged for his Administration official to deny that America was spying.  But the pilot disobeyed his orders to kill himself before being captured, and he was produced live in the Soviet Union for the television cameras!  The Soviets then put him on a phony trial (known as a “show trial” because its real purpose is to humiliate an enemy), and an embarrassed United States had to beg for his return, to which the Soviets ultimately agreed in a prisoner exchange.  It was never fully understood how the plane could have landed safely, and the pilot (Francis Gary Powers) died two decades later while operating a traffic helicopter.  The U-2 incident forced cancellation of a meeting between President Eisenhower and the aggressive Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev.

Americans developed a spy plane that could fly undetected at very high altitudes, called the “U-2”.  When one fell to the earth (possibly shot down) in Soviet territory in 1960, President Eisenhower arranged for his Administration official to deny that America was spying.  But the pilot disobeyed his orders to kill himself before being captured, and he was produced live in the Soviet Union for the television cameras!  The Soviets then put him on a phony trial (known as a “show trial” because its real purpose is to humiliate an enemy), and an embarrassed United States had to beg for his return, to which the Soviets ultimately agreed in a prisoner exchange.  It was never fully understood how the plane could have landed safely, and the pilot (Francis Gary Powers) died two decades later while operating a traffic helicopter.  The U-2 incident forced cancellation of a meeting between President Eisenhower and the aggressive Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev.