Changes

In a completely unrelated move, Italy invaded one of the last remaining independent nations in Africa:  Ethiopia.  In the 1890s, Ethiopia had fought off the Italians, but Mussolini was back for revenge.  He easily conquered Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and, again, the League of Nations could do nothing when Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie begged for help.

In a completely unrelated move, Italy invaded one of the last remaining independent nations in Africa:  Ethiopia.  In the 1890s, Ethiopia had fought off the Italians, but Mussolini was back for revenge.  He easily conquered Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and, again, the League of Nations could do nothing when Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie begged for help.

By 1935 Hitler was rearming Germany, and in 1936 he moved German troops into the buffer zone separating Germany from France:  the industrialized Rhineland.  This violated the Treaty of Versailles but no one did anything to stop it, including the powerless League of Nations.  Mussolini thought it best to ally Italy with Germany, and in October 1936 they formed the Rome-Berlin Axis.  Japan allied with Germany the following month, and the unified Germany-Italy-Japan Axis Powers formed in 1937. In 1940, Italy, Germany, and Japan all joined together in the [[Tripartite Pact]] and officially created the Axis Powers.

By 1935 Hitler was rearming Germany, and in 1936 he moved German troops into the buffer zone separating Germany from France:  the industrialized Rhineland.  This violated the Treaty of Versailles but no one did anything to stop it, including the powerless League of Nations.  Mussolini thought it best to ally Italy with Germany, and in October 1936 they formed the Rome-Berlin Axis.  Japan allied with Germany the following month, and the unified Germany-Italy-Japan Axis Powers formed in 1937. In 1940, Italy, Germany, and Japan solidified the Axis Powers in the [[Tripartite Pact]].

Hitler was just warming up.  Next he wanted to annex Austria to Germany, as they had been combined in the past.  Hitler himself was born in Austria and many Austrians supported joining Germany.  So Hitler annexed Austria on March 12, 1938 without much resistance, and this is known as the Anschluss (unification of Austria and Germany).  France and Britain had promised to defend the independence of Austria, but did nothing.

Hitler was just warming up.  Next he wanted to annex Austria to Germany, as they had been combined in the past.  Hitler himself was born in Austria and many Austrians supported joining Germany.  So Hitler annexed Austria on March 12, 1938 without much resistance, and this is known as the Anschluss (unification of Austria and Germany).  France and Britain had promised to defend the independence of Austria, but did nothing.

By mid-September, Stalin was grabbing eastern Poland and also annexing Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia.  Finland put up an awesome struggle against Stalin, and the typically cold winter helped its defenses.  But by March 1940, the massive Soviet army had taken some territory from Finland.

By mid-September, Stalin was grabbing eastern Poland and also annexing Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia.  Finland put up an awesome struggle against Stalin, and the typically cold winter helped its defenses.  But by March 1940, the massive Soviet army had taken some territory from Finland.

Germany did little for six months after taking Poland.  The Germans nicknamed this the “Sitzkrieg” (sit (wait) – skrieg).  Even though war had been declared, the nations seemed to be watching and waiting.  Some call this period the “phony war.”  The French fortified the Maginot Line, which was a defensive line set up along the French-German border.  Ever since World War I, the French relied on a strong line there to prevent Germans from ever invading again.  But Germany later invaded by going around (“outflanking”) the Maginot Line.

Germany did little for six months after taking Poland.  The Germans nicknamed this the “Sitzkrieg” (sit – zkrieg).  Even though war had been declared, the nations seemed to be watching and waiting.  Some call this period the “phony war.”  The French fortified the Maginot Line, which was a defensive line set up along the French-German border.  Ever since World War I, the French relied on a strong line there to prevent Germans from ever invading again.  But Germany later invaded by going around (“outflanking”) the Maginot Line.

The Germans, meanwhile, fortified their Siegfried Line on their side.  Then, on April 9, 1940, the Germans invaded Denmark and Norway.  Denmark surrendered quickly, and by June Norway had fallen also.

The Germans, meanwhile, fortified their Siegfried Line on their side.  Then, on April 9, 1940, the Germans invaded Denmark and Norway.  Denmark surrendered quickly, and by June Norway had fallen also.

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

But President Roosevelt did little based on this letter, and instead allocated only a tiny $6,000 for such a project. Over two years passed, and no progress was made. It was not until Dec. 6, 1941, the day before Pearl Harbor, that an all-out effort to build an atomic bomb began under the direction of General Leslie Groves.  Building on work performed by the brilliant physicist Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, a massive and top-secret team of scientists assembled in Los Alamos, New Mexico, to build an atomic bomb.  Managers of this project included J. Robert Oppenheimer, who later accused of being a communist sympathizer.

But President Roosevelt did little based on this letter, and instead allocated only a tiny $6,000 for such a project. Over two years passed, and no progress was made. It was not until Dec. 6, 1941, the day before Pearl Harbor, that an all-out effort to build an atomic bomb began under the direction of General Leslie Groves.  Building on work performed by the brilliant physicist Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, a massive and top-secret team of scientists assembled in Los Alamos, New Mexico, to build an atomic bomb.  Managers of this project included J. Robert Oppenheimer, who was later accused of being a communist sympathizer.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thereby served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it a secret from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thereby served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.