Changes

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Next came Romania, which had been ruled for decades by the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu.  Massive demonstrations against his rule in December 1989 caused the army to join the people, and they captured Ceausescu as he attempted to flee with his wife.  They were executed on Christmas Day.  Free elections were beginning in 1990.

Next came Romania, which had been ruled for decades by the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu.  Massive demonstrations against his rule in December 1989 caused the army to join the people, and they captured Ceausescu as he attempted to flee with his wife.  They were executed on Christmas Day; the timing suggests that the revolutionaries were perhaps not any better.  But at least free elections began 1990.

However, not all the changes in these countries were for the better.  Ceausescu, for example, prohibited abortion for decades in Romania.  As a result, Romanians had the lowest incidence of breast cancer in the Western world, far lower than the United States.  But after he was overthrown, Romania began promoting abortion and breast cancer subsequently skyrocketed.  In 1990, American families rushed to Romania to adopt babies while they were still available.

Ceausescu opposed abortion, unlike most communists.  The ban on abortion there helped avoid many of the health probablems caused by abortion.  Romanians had the lowest incidence of breast cancer in the Western world, far lower than the United States.  In 1990, American families rushed to Romania to adopt babies who were available for adoption there.  After Ceausescu was overthrown and abortion were legalized, Romania began promoting abortion, breast cancer skyrocketed, and there were no more babies available for adoption by Americans and others.

The collapse of the communist dictatorship exposed underlying ethnic and religious conflict, particularly in Yugoslavia.  Its dictator, Marshall Tito, (real name Josip Broz) ruled with an iron fist from 1945 to 1980, and the different ethnic groups could not fight each other as he suppressed all conflict.  He also insisted on some independence from the Soviet Union, and Stalin expelled him from the Soviet bloc in 1948.  Tito was succeeded in power by the Serb Slobodan Milosevic, which caused Slovenia and Croatia to seek independence due to their different ethnicity.  In June 1991, the Yugoslavian army attempted to suppress these independence movements.  It succeeded with Croatia, which has a large Serbian minority, but the Slovenians ousted the Serbs and achieved independence.

The collapse of the communist dictatorship exposed underlying ethnic and religious conflict, particularly in Yugoslavia.  Its dictator, Marshall Tito (real name Josip Broz), ruled with an iron fist from 1945 to 1980, and the different ethnic groups could not fight each other as he suppressed all conflict.  He also insisted on some independence from the Soviet Union, and Stalin expelled him from the Soviet bloc in 1948.  Tito was succeeded in power by the Serb Slobodan Milosevic, which caused Slovenia and Croatia to seek independence due to their different ethnicity.  In June 1991, the Yugoslavian army attempted to suppress these independence movements.

Bloodshed continued in Croatia as the Serbs battled the Croats.  Eventually, the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened in 1999 in what is known as the Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict, driving Milosevic from power and forcing his trial by an international tribunal.  He died of natural causes during a lengthy war crimes trial.

Bloodshed continued in Croatia as the Serbs battled the Croats.  Eventually, the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened in 1999 in what is known as the Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict, driving Milosevic from power and forcing his trial by an international tribunal.  He died of natural causes during a lengthy war crimes trial.

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

But on May 3, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 25 (PDD-25).  This ordered submission of American troops to multilateral peace operations.  In July, Michael New was assigned to Germany, 3rd Infantry Division, and his company was told it would be sent to Macedonia as part of a "peacekeeping" mission.  In August 1995, Michael New was informed that his unit must wear part of the U.N. uniform.  

But on May 3, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 25 (PDD-25).  This ordered submission of American troops to multilateral peace operations.  In July, Michael New was assigned to Germany, 3rd Infantry Division, and his company was told it would be sent to Macedonia as part of a "peacekeeping" mission.  In August 1995, Michael New was informed that his unit must wear part of the U.N. uniform.  Soldier New’s position was that the order was unlawful and unconstitutional.  Specifically, U.S. Constitution Article I, Section 9 prohibits any person’s acceptance of any emolument from a foreign state without congressional consent.  New also argued that the entire deployment as part of a United Nations force was unlawful.  

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a "non-justiciable" political question that could not be handled by a judge, and which could only be handled by a political branch of government (such as Congress or the President).

 

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a "non-justiciable" political question that could not be handled by a judge, and which should be better handled by a political branch of government.  Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge.  New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

=== China ===

=== China ===

Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng when he died in 1997.  He refused to improve China’s record on human rights, and Christianity and democracy remain suppressed there.  Moreover, China has armed itself in preparation for a war with the United States, pointing many nuclear missiles at California.

Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng when he died in 1997.  He refused to improve China’s record on human rights, and Christianity and democracy remain suppressed there.  Moreover, China has armed itself in preparation for a war with the United States, pointing many nuclear missiles at California.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and Britain returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

=== Latin America ===

=== Latin America ===

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is the primary language.  In other words, Latin America is all of America south of the United States, other than the Caribbean islands.  [[Latin America]] is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.

"Latin America" includes Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is the primary language.  In other words, Latin America is all of America south of the United States, other than the Caribbean islands.  [[Latin America]] is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.

The nations of Latin America had won their political independence from European powers long before the 20th century.  But they have struggled in becoming economically independent.  It was not until the middle of the 20th century that Latin American nations began to export manufactured goods in addition to minerals and food.  In the 1970s and 1980s, huge debts to foreign powers combined with a depression caused severe economic problems.  Some blame lending policies of developed nations and their organizations, such as the World Bank, for causing this debt crisis.  After much loan forgiveness and an improved worldwide economy, Latin American nations had stronger economies and less dependence on foreign powers by the end of the 20th century.

The nations of Latin America had won their political independence from European powers long before the 20th century.  But they have struggled in becoming economically independent.  It was not until the middle of the 20th century that Latin American nations began to export manufactured goods in addition to minerals and food.  In the 1970s and 1980s, huge debts to foreign powers combined with a depression caused severe economic problems.  Some blame lending policies of developed nations and their organizations, such as the World Bank, for causing this debt crisis.  After much loan forgiveness and an improved worldwide economy, Latin American nations had stronger economies and less dependence on foreign powers by the end of the 20th century.

In one of the largest Latin American countries, Mexico, the rule of President Lazaro Cardenas from 1934 to 1940 ended the land monopoly enjoyed by a small number of wealthy Mexicans by redistributing the land to peasants.  He also forced foreign investors to give up control over Mexican oil wells.

In one of the largest Latin American countries, Mexico, the rule of President Lazaro Cardenas from 1934 to 1940 redistributed land from the wealthy to peasants.  He also forced foreign investors to give up control over Mexican oil wells.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI for its Spanish initials) controlled Mexico from 1929 to 2000, when Vicente Fox of PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) was elected president.  The PRI was known for corruption and acting on behalf of wealthy Mexicans.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI for its Spanish initials) controlled Mexico from 1929 to 2000, when Vicente Fox of PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) was elected president.  The PRI was known for corruption and acting on behalf of wealthy Mexicans.

In another large Latin American nation, Argentina, the military has long controlled the government.  The most popular military ruler was Colonel Juan Peron, who was elected in 1946.  He became known for his “popular dictatorship.”  His wife, Eva Peron, was even more popular for her tremendous charisma.  Peron ruled for over a decade, and brought industrialization and working class values to the nation.  He limited foreign ownership.  But critics felt Peron infringed too much on civil liberties.  He was deposed in 1955 but came back briefly in the 1970s.  In 1982, the military rulers of Argentina attempted to take the Falkland Islands, which are located off its shores in the Atlantic Ocean, from the British.  The British fought back with the help of American intelligence and regained control of the islands.

In another large Latin American nation, Argentina, the military has long controlled the government.  The most popular military ruler was Colonel Juan Peron, who was elected in 1946.  He became known for his “popular dictatorship.”  His wife, Eva Peron, was even more popular for her tremendous charisma.  Juan Peron ruled for over a decade, and brought industrialization and working class values to the nation.  He limited foreign ownership.  But critics felt Peron infringed too much on civil liberties.  He was deposed in 1955 but came back briefly in the 1970s.  In 1982, the military rulers of Argentina attempted to take the Falkland Islands, which are located off its shores in the Atlantic Ocean, from the British.  The British fought back with the help of American intelligence and regained control of the islands.

== References ==

== References ==