Changes

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

'''Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana'''.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

'''Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana'''.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria and it joined OPEC.  But the Muslim Hausa-Fulani seized power in 1983 and ruled for 16 years, discriminating against the Christians.  In 1999, a civilian government was reestablished pursuant to a new constitution.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria and it joined OPEC.  But the Muslim Hausa-Fulani seized power in 1983 and ruled for 16 years, discriminating against the Christians.  In 1999, a civilian government was reestablished pursuant to a new constitution.

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy from the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

'''Belgium held the Congo as an African colony''' for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy from the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

=== Russia ===

=== Russia ===

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.  One Russian predicts that the United States will also break up in a similar way.   

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.  One Russian predicted that the United States will also break up in a similar way.   

Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and in 1985 he promoted a new policy called “glasnost” or openness.  This ended decades of censorship by the communist dictators, and free speech began to work wonders.  Books could be published and churches could preach the Gospel.  He released some political prisoners.  Faced with a failing economy, Gorbachev adopted “perestroika”, which was a restructuring of the Soviet economy.  He permitted some ownership of private property, such as small businesses, farms and factories.

Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and in 1985 he promoted a new policy called “glasnost” or openness.  This ended decades of censorship by the communist dictators, and free speech began to work wonders.  Books could be published and churches could preach the Gospel.  He released some political prisoners.  Faced with a failing economy, Gorbachev adopted “perestroika”, which was a restructuring of the Soviet economy.  He permitted some ownership of private property, such as small businesses, farms and factories.

But perhaps Providence intervened this time.  Boris Yeltsin, a charismatic Russian, emerged to challenge Gorbachev’s leadership.  Yeltsin had been a popular mayor of Moscow and was a powerful member of the parliament.  In June 1991, the voters elected Yeltsin as president of a new Russian Republic.

But perhaps Providence intervened this time.  Boris Yeltsin, a charismatic Russian, emerged to challenge Gorbachev’s leadership.  Yeltsin had been a popular mayor of Moscow and was a powerful member of the parliament.  In June 1991, the voters elected Yeltsin as president of a new Russian Republic.

Communists were angry and determined to stop Yeltsin’s challenge.  In August 1991, they ordered the soldiers to kill Yeltsin.  Providence must have intervened, because the troops refused the order.  Rarely, if ever, do troops refuse orders like this.  In a communist country, such refusal was unheard of.  Gorbachev promptly resigned as head of the Communist Party, and then Latvia, Estonia and other Soviet republics declared their independence as Lithuania had.  On Christmas Day of 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union.

Communists were angry and determined to stop Yeltsin’s challenge.  In August 1991, they ordered the soldiers to kill Yeltsin.  Providence must have intervened, because the troops refused the order.  Rarely, if ever, do troops refuse orders.  In a communist country, such refusal was unheard of.  Gorbachev promptly resigned as head of the Communist Party, and then Latvia, Estonia and other Soviet republics declared their independence as Lithuania had.  On Christmas Day of 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union.

By then, Russia and the other newly independent republics had formed a federation to replace the Soviet Union, known as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).  All joined except for the Baltic republics and Georgia, a large former Soviet state not to be confused with the American state of Georgia.

By then, Russia and the other newly independent republics had formed a federation to replace the Soviet Union, known as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).  All joined except for the Baltic republics and Georgia, a large former Soviet state not to be confused with the American state of Georgia.

After Gorbachev resigned, Yeltsin brought free enterprise to Russia.  He ended price controls, cut taxes, stopped subsidizing government-controlled industries and reduced trade barriers.  Churches opened and flourished.  The people of Leningrad changed the name of their city back to St. Petersburg.  Critics of Yeltsin complained about inflation and the loss of jobs, and organized crime became a problem without the KGB controlling everything.  But the people were certainly not going to return to communism.  Today Russia has lower taxes than the United States.

After Gorbachev resigned, Yeltsin brought free enterprise to Russia.  He ended price controls, cut taxes, stopped subsidizing government-controlled industries and reduced trade barriers.  Churches opened and flourished.  The people of Leningrad changed the name of their city back to St. Petersburg.  Critics of Yeltsin complained about inflation and the loss of jobs, and organized crime became a problem without the KGB controlling everything.  But the Russian people were not going back to communism.  Today Russia has lower taxes than the United States.

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.  In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school.  The trouble continues.

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.

=== Eastern Europe ===

=== Eastern Europe ===

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

The fall of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

As conflict worsened in Poland, Pope John Paul II visited the country and attracted literally millions of supporters.  At one point, he stood at the podium with the communist-installed leader and lectured him about respecting the dignity and freedom of the Polish people.  The communist leader trembled in front of the huge crowd.  When the Soviet Union threatened to crack down on the Polish people, the Pope declared that he would respond by returning to Poland to fight on the front lines against the communists.

As conflict worsened in Poland, Pope John Paul II visited the country and attracted literally millions of supporters.  At one point, he stood at the podium with the communist-installed leader and lectured him about respecting the dignity and freedom of the Polish people.  The communist leader trembled in front of the huge crowd.  When the Soviet Union threatened to crack down on the Polish people, the Pope declared that he would respond by returning to Poland to fight on the front lines against the communists.

In April 1989, the Polish government allowed free elections for the first time World War II, and the people elected Lech Walesa as president and his group Solidarity swept into office.  Communism was defeated.  Walesa remained in power until 1995 and may have been a bit overwhelmed by all the political issues.  He was then replaced by a former communist, Aleksander Kwasniewski, who favored some free enterprise.  The fall of communism in Poland enabled passage of laws prohibiting abortion.  Abortion rates in the communist Soviet Union had been several times higher than the rest of the world.

In April 1989, the Polish government allowed free elections for the first time since World War II, and the people elected Lech Walesa as president and his group Solidarity swept into office.  Communism was defeated.  The fall of communism in Poland had this great effect:  the new Christian-based government banned abortion.  Abortion rates in the communist Soviet Union had been several times higher than the rest of the world.

   

   

Hungary, the same country that attempted to overthrow communism in 1956, immediately followed Poland’s lead.  In October 1989, opponents of the Communist Party took it over and dissolved it.  A new constitution allowed for national elections in 1990, and the people defeated the communists in power.  Hungary embraced some free enterprise and started a stock market.  But like much of Eastern Europe, socialists remained powerful and in 1994 they crept back into power and raised taxes.  Today Hungary is a mixture of socialism and free enterprise.

Hungary, the same country that attempted to overthrow communism in 1956, immediately followed Poland’s lead.  In October 1989, opponents of the Communist Party took it over and dissolved it.  A new constitution allowed for national elections in 1990, and the people defeated the communists in power.  Hungary embraced some free enterprise and started a stock market.  But like much of Eastern Europe, socialists remained powerful and in 1994 they crept back into power and raised taxes.  Today Hungary is a mixture of socialism and free enterprise.

Hungary helped end communism in East Germany, which was the most brutal of the communist regimes.  Hungary opened its border to allow East Germans to emigrate into Austria, from where they could escape entirely.  As East Germans began to leave in droves, the communist leader Erich Honecker closed the border.  But demonstrations broke out in October 1989, which not even the ruthless Honecker could control.  He resigned and his successor, Egon Krenz, reacted by opening the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989.  East Germans then poured into West Berlin and tore down the wall entirely.  By the end of the year communism was defeated in East Germany, and within a year it was reunited with West Germany to form one nation of Germany under West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl.  Germans expect that it will take an entire generation (30-40 years) to bring the formerly communist section up to the level of the free West Germany.

Hungary helped end communism in East Germany, which was the most brutal of the communist regimes.  Hungary opened its border to allow East Germans to emigrate into Austria, from where they could escape entirely.  As East Germans began to leave in droves, the communist leader Erich Honecker closed the border.  But demonstrations broke out in October 1989, which not even the ruthless Honecker could control.  He resigned and his successor, Egon Krenz, reacted by opening the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989.  East Germans then poured into West Berlin and tore down the wall entirely.  By the end of the year communism was defeated in East Germany, and within a year it was reunited with West Germany to form one nation of Germany under West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl.  Germans expect that it will take an entire generation (30-40 years) to bring the formerly communist section up to the prosperity of the free West Germany.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.